Syntactical Peculiarities of Idioms

There are also plenty of syntactic restrictions. Some idioms have passives, but others do not. The law was laid down and The beans have been spilled are all right (though some may question the latter), but The bucket was kicked is not. But in no case could we say It was the – (beans that were spilled, law that was laid down, bucket that was kicked, etc.). The restrictions vary from idiom to idiom. Some are more restricted or “frozen” than others.

Classes of Idioms

A very common type of idiom in English is what is usually called the “phrasal verb”, the combination of verb plus adverb of the kind make up, give in, put down. The meaning of these combinations cannot be predicted from the individual verb and adverb and in many cases there is a single verb with the same or a very close meaning – invent, yield, quell. Not all combinations of this kind are idiomatic, of course. Put down has a literal sense, too, and there are many others that are both idiomatic and not, e.g. take in as in The conjuror took the audience in, The woman took the homeless children in. There are even degrees of idiomaticity since one can make up a story, make up a fire or make up one’s face. Moreover, it is not only sequences of verb plus adverb that may be idiomatic. There are also sequences of verb plus preposition, such as look after and go for, and sequences of verb, adverb and preposition, such as put up with (‘tolerate’) or do away with (‘kill’).

There are also what we may call partial idioms, where one of the words has its usual meaning, the other has a meaning that is peculiar to the particular sequence. Thus red hair refers to hair, but not hair that is red in strict colour terms. Comedians have fun with partial idioms of this kind, e.g. when instructed to make a bed they bring out a set of carpenter’s tools. An interesting set involves the word white, for white coffee is brown in colour, white wine is usually yellow, and white people are pink. Yet, white is, perhaps, idiomatic only to some degree – it could be interpreted ‘the lightest in colour of that usually to be found’. Not surprisingly black is used as its antonym for coffee and people (though again neither are black in colour terms), yet it is not used for wine. Thus it can be seen that even partial idiomaticity can be a matter of degree and may in some cases be little more than a matter of collocational restriction. On a more comic level there is partial idiomaticity in raining cats and dogs (in Welsh it rains old women and sticks!).

What is and what is not an idiom is, then often a matter of degree. It is very difficult, moreover, to decide whether a word or a sequence of words is opaque. We could, perhaps, define idioms in terms of non-equivalence in other languages, so that kick the bucket, red herring, etc., are idioms because they cannot be directly translated into French or German. But this will not really work. The French for nurse is garde-malade, but while this cannot be directly translated into English it is quite transparent, obviously meaning someone who looks after the sick.

The next largest class of idioms is that of well established sayings and proverbs. These include the famous types of don’t count your chickens before they’re hatched (meaning “do not celebrate the outcome of an undertaking prematurely because it is possible that you will fail in which case you will look ridiculous”); don’t wash your dirty linen in public (meaning “do not complain of your domestic affairs before strangers as it is none of their business”), and so forth. Many of these originate from some well known literary sources or come to us from the earliest English speakers in Great Britain and the North American Continent.

Lack of predictability of meaning (or precise meaning) is not the only criterion of idiomaticity. Set phrases or phrasal units are also idiomatic, even though their meanings may be transparent. What is idiomatic (unpredictable) about them is their construction. Examples include How about a drink? What do you say, Joe? (as a greeting); as a matter of fact, just in case, just to be on the safe side, and many more.

Another important case of idiomaticity is the one-word idiom that occurs when a word is used in a surprisingly different meaning from the original one. Examples include lemon, said of bad watches, cars, or machines in general; and dog, said of a bad date or a bad exam (My car is a lemon, my math exam was a dog).

Why is English so heavily idiomatic? The most probable reason is that as we develop new concepts, we need new expressions for them, but instead of creating a brand new word from the sounds of the language, we use some already existing words and put them together in a new sense. This, however, appears to be true of all known languages. There are, in fact, no known languages that do not have some idioms. The idiom the die is cast! Means “I made an irreversible decision and must live with it”. We can try to reconstruct how this idiom came into being: the image of the die that was cast in gambling cannot be thrown again; that would be illegal; whether you have a one, a three, or a six, you must face the consequences of your throw, that is, win or lose, as the case may be. (Some people may know that the phrase was used by Caesar when he crossed the Rubicon, an event that led to war). It’s great to learn as many idioms as possible, but the most important thing is to use them correctly — in sufficient volume and in proper place. First of all, we should wait until we hear an idiom from a native speaker in a natural context; we should not experiment with using an idiom until we have mastered the basics of English grammar. Once we have heard the idiom being used more than once, and fully understand its meaning, we can try using it by ourselves. Imagine that you have two job offers, one sure, but lower paying, and one that pays more, but is only tentative. Because of nervousness and fear of having no job at all, you accept the lower paying job, at which moment the better offer comes through and naturally you feel frustrated. You can then say Oh well, the die is cast … If you try this on a native speaker and he looks at you with sympathy and does not ask “what do you mean?” — you have achieved your first successful placement of a newly learned idiom in an appropriate context. This can be a rewarding experience. English people can definitely tell us how fluent we are and between foreigners and natives just by the fact of using idioms. If a person always uses a bookish, stilted expression and never uses an idiom in the right place, he might develop the reputation of being a dry, unimaginable speaker, or one who is trying to be too serious and too official. The use of idioms is, therefore, extremely important. It can strike a chord of solidarity with the listener. The more idioms we use in the right context, the more at ease English people will feel with us and the more they will think to themselves “this is a nice and friendly person — look at how well he expresses himself!” So, searching for idioms, finding and learning them, practising in speech and catching their meaning when somebody else is speaking should become our second nature as interpreters/translators. If we come across or hear the idiomatic expression which is not fixed yet in special dictionaries make up your own notes of these idioms.

Non-native speakers of English can reach a point in their knowledge of the language where they feel comfortable with standard literary speech; however, they’re liable to find themselves in hot water when confronted with idiomatic expressions. When hearing an idiom or colloquialism they may feel frustrated and confused, since the true meaning of the idiom generally cannot be determined by knowledge of its component parts. In many cases an attempt on the part of the learner to tie down a definition of an idiom that would work in all instances is a futile undertaking.

When used by native speakers, idioms sound natural and fit the occasion, since Americans instinctively feel the imagery and impact of what they are saying. A non-native speaker of English, on the other hand, may know the basic meaning of such expressions as “I gave it my best shot” or “dressed to kill”, but not be able to use them appropriately. For example, if at a formal gathering an American says to the wife of a foreign diplomat that her gown is elegant, or that she looks lovely, and in appreciation for the compliment her answer is, “Thank you, I gave it my best shot!” or “Thanks, I’ve dressed to kill!”, the chances are that the American would be trying his hardest to hold back peals of laughter. Even with a fairly accurate idea of the meaning of an idiomatic expression, the non-native lacks the intuitive feeling for its impact or for the “picture” it creates.

To bridge the gap between “meaning” and “thrust” of American colloquialisms situations should be provided, so that the imagery created by the expression can be felt, rather than simply learned as a stock definition. Below a few idioms are given together with the situation which will help to convey the feeling of the idiom and the circumstances under which they may be used:

1. Smell a rat (feel that something is wrong – відчувати, що щось не так, щось не гаразд):

· How come the front door is open? Didn’t you close it before we went shopping?

· I’m sure I did. I can’t understand it.

· Frankly, I smell a rat.

· Me, too. I’m convinced that something is definitely wrong here.

· We’d better call the police.

2. Go to the dogs (become run-down – занепадати, бути в занедбаному стані, майже розвалитись)

· Have you seen their house lately? It’s really gone to the dogs.

· It’s true that it has become run-down and in serious need of repair, but I’m sure that it can be fixed up to look like new.

· I guess with a little carpentry work and some paint it could look pretty decent.

3. Fishy (strange and suspicious – дивний та підозрілий)

When the security guard saw a light in the store after closing hours, it seemed to him that there was something fishy going on. He called the central office and explained to his superior that he thought something strange and suspicious was occurring.

4. Take the bull by the horns (take decisive action in a difficult situation – рішуче діяти)

Julie had always felt that she was missing out on a lot of fun because of her clumsiness on the dance floor. She had been putting off taking lessons, but she finally took the bull by the horns and went to a professional dance studio for help. She was tired of feeling left out and acted decisively to correct the situation.

5. Horse of a different colour (quite a different matter – зовсім інша справа)

Eric likes to play jokes on his friends, but he makes sure that nobody is hurt by any of his pranks. A prank that hurts someone is a horse of a different colour! Being playful is one thing, but hurting someone by one’s prank is quite a different matter.

6. Let the cat out of the bag (inform beforehand – розплескати, видати таємницю)

Bob was going to retire from teaching in June, and the foreign language department was planning on presenting him with some luggage at his retirement dinner. He wasn’t supposed to know about it, but someone let the cat out of the bag. At the dinner Bob acted surprised, even though someone had told him what he was getting before the official presentation.

7. For the birds (uninteresting and meaningless – дурня, маячня, не потрібне нікому, марне витрачання часу)

They went to a poetry reading, but they got bored and restless. As far as they were concerned, it was for the birds! They left during an intermission because they found the reading totally uninteresting and meaningless.

8. Straight from the horse’s mouth (from a reliable source – з перших рук)

· How did you find out that Jill was engaged?

· I got the information from a very reliable source.

· You mean Jill told you so herself?

· That’s right. I got it straight from the horse’s mouth!

9. Horse around (play around – дуріти, клеїти дурня, марнувати час)

· Did you hear about Dave’s back injury?

· No. How did he get hurt?

· Well, after the coach left the gym he decided to stay and horse around on the parallel bars. He somehow lost his grip and fell on his back.

· That’s too bad, but he shouldn’t have been aimlessly playing around on the equipment without proper supervision.

10. Cat got your tongue? (can’t talk? – що, язика проковтнув? Заціпило?)

· Come on, Connie! Tell us what you think about our little ride down the rapids yesterday.

· Well, uh…

· Wasn’t it exciting?

· I, uh…

· What’s the matter? Cat got your tongue?

· If you must know, I’m keeping quiet because I was scared out of my wits!

11. Get in someone’s hair (bother someone – дошкуляти, дратувати, “діставати”)

· Clara, I know that the children get in your hair, but you should try not to let it upset you so much.

· Listen, Jim. I can’t help it. The children bother me and make me angry when they’re so noisy and messy.

12. Shoot off one’s mouth (express one’s opinion loudly – вихвалятися, хизуватися, кричати на всю вулицю). It is useful to know some other idioms with the same key word:

I’ll be shot if... — щоб мені провалитися на цьому місці, якщо...;

shoot that! — перестань!, годі!, облиш!;

shot in the neck — напідпитку;

to shoot [out] one’s neck — поводитися зухвало;

to shoot a goal — попасти в ціль; добитися свого;

to shoot a line — хвастати;

to shoot an emergency landing — робити вимушену посадку;

to shoot Niagara [the gulf] — зважуватися на відчайдушний крок;

to shoot oneself clear — катапультуватися;

to shoot the cat — блювати;

to shoot the moon — вночі виїхати з квартири, не заплативши за неї.

Jim doesn’t play tennis very much, but he’s always shooting off his mouth about how good he is. Yet he’s fooling nobody. Jim is somewhat of a braggart and everyone knows that he gives opinions without knowing all the facts and talks as if he knew everything about the game.

13. Jump down someone’s throat (become angry with someone –розлютитись, розгніватись на когось)

· That’s it, Greg! You’d better not come in after midnight again tonight!

· I know, dad. You don’t have to jump down my throat! I told you that I’d make it home around 11:30. I don’t intend to be late!

· Well, you’ve said that before and in you come at 2:30 in the morning. You can’t blame me for getting angry and scolding you. I’ve got good reason.

The rest of the idioms given below are very often used in modern English and therefore it is useful to memorize them. Idioms are often used in proverbs as their integral parts. Sometimes it is even hard to tell between a proverb and idiom, or saying, as all of them are not infrequently used in their figurative meaning:

LECTURE 13: Phrasal Verbs
and Common English phrases

Phrasal Verbs

A phrasal verb is a verb that consists of two or three words; its meaning is different from the meaning those words would have if they are considered each one separately. For example, the meaning of carry out (=do) in the sentence Scientists carried out an experiment is not related to the normal meaning of “carry” or the normal meaning of “out”. We cannot guess the meaning of pull up (=stop) in the sentence A car pulled up outside the house even if we know what “pull” and “up” mean. Even though answer back (=answer rudely) is related to the meaning of the verb “answer”, this does not help us to understand what answer back means.

Most phrasal verbs consist of two words: get up, go off, turn on, make out, and deal with. The first word is a verb, the second word is a particle, which is either an adverb (“out”) or a preposition (“with”). There are also some three-word phrasal verbs: catch up with, look forward to.

Verbs which are used with an adverb or preposition but do not combine to produce a special meaning are not phrasal verbs. In sentence such as The boy fell off his bike and We carried some chairs out into the garden, “fall off” and “carry out” are not phrasal verbs because their meaning can be worked out if we know what “fall” and “off”, “carry” and “out” mean.

Some verbs are only ever used with a particular preposition or adverb: for example, rely on and amount to. Other phrasal verbs mean almost the same as the verb on its own, but the adverb adds emphasis or contains the idea of an action being completed or continued: eat up, hurry up, toil away. Some phrasal verbs are used with “it” – hit it off, jump to it – and others are used with a reflexive pronoun – pride yourself on, lend itself to.

One and the same phrasal verb may have more than one meaning, which depends on the context:

1. Catch up on smth.: to do something that one did not have time to do earlier: I needed a couple of days to catch up on my school work.

I spent most of the weekend trying to catch up on my sleep.

2. Catch up on smth.: to get the most recent information about something: He’s been away for a month, so it will take him a while to catch up on what’s been going on.

3. Catch up with smb.: if something bad catches up with you, it starts to affect you after a period of time in which it did not: The player admitted that his long-term knee injury is finally beginning to catch up with him.

4. Catch up with smb: to discover that someone has done something wrong, and punish him for it: Hughes had avoided paying tax for years before the authorities finally caught up with him.

5. Catch up with smb.: to meet someone you know after not seeing him for a period of time: She’s back in the country and keen to catch up with family and friends. I’ll catch up with you later (= used to tell someone that you will talk to them later): I’ve got to dash off a meeting now – I’ll catch up with you later.

6. Catch up with smth.: to do something that needs to be done, because you did not have time to do it earlier: Friday is a quiet day, so I usually have chance to catch up with my paperwork.

7. Catch up with smth.: to get the most recent information about something: The event provides an opportunity for members to catch up with each other’s news.

The position of the object in the phrasal verb can vary. For example, at turn on (= make something start working), there are two grammatical patterns: turn on smth., turn smth. on. They show that the object can come either after the phrasal verb, or between the main verb and the particle:

I turned on the radio and listened to the six o’clock news.

Could you turn the oven on, if you’re going in the kitchen?

The phrasal verb nod off has only one grammatical pattern: nod off. This is because the verb does not take an object: I missed the end of her lecture – I think I must have nodded off.

The grammatical patterns of the phrasal verb join in (=take part in an activity with other people) are as follows: join in, join in smth. They show that join in can be used without an object, or with an object immediately after the phrasal verb: When we get to the chorus, I want everybody to join in. Politely, he joined in the laughter.

The grammatical pattern of the phrasal verb talk into (=persuade someone to do something, especially something they are unwilling to do) is: talk smb. into smth. This shows that talk into must have two objects. The first is a person, and the second is a thing: I should never have let you talk me into this crazy scheme.

Phrasal verbs such as turn on, put off, and rip off can all take an object between the main verb and the particle, or after the phrasal verb. They are called “separable” phrasal verbs because their two parts can be separated: Can you turn the oven on for me? Can you turn on the oven for me?

With this type of verb two more rules apply:

1. If the object is a pronoun, then this pronoun must come between the verb and the adverb: If you’re not listening to the radio, I’ll turn it off (not I’ll turn off it).

2. If the object is a long phrase, it should come after the phrasal verb: The French carried out a series of six nuclear tests.

The phrasal verbs can be transformed into nouns and adjectives – derivatives with a slightly changed word form. The noun blackout (written in one word instead of two) comes from the phrasal verb black out (=suddenly become unconscious), and the adjective made-up (written through dash instead of two separate words) comes from the phrasal verb make up (=invent a story, name, etc.).

Sometimes the phrasal verbs can take a preposition:

Back out: to decide not to do something that one has agreed to do: The couple who were going to buy our house backed out at the last minute.

Back out of: She’s made a promise and she can’t back out of it now.

Very often phrasal verbs are used in common phrases:

Bet on smth.: to feel sure that something will happen, especially so that it influences what you decide to do: Traders who had bet on a rise in share prices lost money.

Don’t bet on it/I wouldn’t bet on it: “ Do you think they’ll let me work for them again?” I wouldn’t bet on it. ”

Phrasal verbs are highly idiomatic and most of them should be just memorized.

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