Future Perfect Continuous. to emphasize the duration of an action up to a certain time in the future.

to emphasize the duration of an action up to a certain time in the future.

By the end of next month, she will have been teaching for 20 yrs.

With: by... for.

Word Formation________________________________________

Prefixes are syllables which we add before certain words to form new words. The meaning of the new word depends on the prefix that has been used.

♦ The prefixes below are used to express opposite meanings.

de- defrost, decompose

die- dishonest, dislike

in- indirect, independent. il- (bef. I) illogical. im- (bef. m, p) immoral, impractical. Ir- (bef. r) irresponsible but: unreliable, unreasonable

non- non-smoker, non-stop un- unacceptable, unemployed

♦ Suffixes are syllables which we add to the end of certain words to form new words.

♦ Nouns referring to people

• verb + er/or/ar. teach - teacher, sail - sailor, beg - beggar

• noun/verb/adjective + ist. motor - motorist, tour - tourist, national – nationalist

• verb + ant/ent. contest - contestant, study - student

• noun + an/Ian. republic - republican, library - librarian

• verb + ее (passive meaning). train – trainee

♦ Nouns formed from verbs

-age pack - package

-al refuse - refusal

-ance accept - acceptance

-ation realize - realization

-ence differ - difference

-ion. revise - revision

-ment enjoy - enjoyment

-sion comprehend -comprehension (verbs ending in -d/-t)

-sis hypnotise - hypnosis

-tion prescribe - prescription

♦ Nouns formed from adjectives

-ance important - importance

-cy vacant – vacancy

-ence competent - competence

-ion desolate – desolation

-ness lonely - loneliness

-ity formal - formality

-ty loyal - loyalty

-y modest - modesty

♦ Adjectives formed from nouns

-ous fame - famous

-al addition - additional

-ic hero - heroic

-ive expense - expensive

-ful (with) care careful

-less (without) care – careless

-y health - healthy

-ly friend - friendly

♦ Adjectives formed from verbs

-able like - likeable

-ible defend – defensible

-ive conclude - conclusive

♦ Verbs formed from adjectives

-en light – lighten

-ise legal - legalize

Modal Verbs____________________________________________

can, could, may, might, must, will, would, shall, should and ought are modal verbs. They do not take a suffix (-s, -ing or -ed).

They are followed by a bare infinitive, except for ought which is followed by a to-inf. They may come tonight. You ought to get a job.

They go before the subject in questions and are followed by not in negations. Can I say something? I couldn't understand him.

Modal verbs do not usually have tenses.

They can refer to the present or the future. I must go now (present) You must call me early tomorrow morning (future)

Ability (Can – Could – Be able to)

Can is used in the present and future. Could is the past tense of can. We use be able to to form all the other tenses.

♦ Can = be able to - ability in the present. Tom can play the guitar.

♦ will be able to - ability in the future. When you graduate, youll be able to get a job. BUT we use can when we decide now ab smth we’ll do in the near future. / havent got any money now, but I can pay you tomorro

♦ Could = used to be able to - ability in the past (repeated past action)

We can use was/were able to with no difference in meaning.

/ could/was able to run fast when I was young.

♦ was/were able to = managed to do ability in the past (single past act.). We use itto show that someone had the ability to do smth in a particular situation in the past. Although it was dark, he was able to find his way.

♦ We normally use could with the verbs see, hear, smell, taste, feel, understand, guess and remember. She listened carefully and she could hear people talking in the next room. (NOT: was able to hear)

♦ In negations we can use couldn't or wasn't/weren't able to with no difference in meaning. / couldnt/wasnt able to reach him on the phone.

Obligation /Duty/Necessity (Must – Have to – Should / Ought – Need)

♦ must = it is your duty/you are obliged to do sth.

♦ have to = it is necessary to do sth. We have to be at the airport at 9.

We use must when the speaker decides that something is necessary. We use have to when somebody else other than the speaker has made the decision. / must (have to) finish the report by tomorrow.

♦ Must and have to have different meanings in questions.

Must I tidy my room? (= Do you insist that I tidy my room?)

Do I have to tidy my room? (= Is it necessary for me to tidy my room?)

♦ Have got to has the same meaning as have to, and is often used in everyday speech. We got to phone Mum tonight.

♦ We use have to when we need to use other tenses.

We had to call for the doctor when Aunt Lucy fainted last night.

♦ should/ought (less emphatic than must) Should and ought express duty. People should take/ought to take better care of the environment.

♦ need = it is necessary to. Need I talk to the boss right away?

Need can be used as a main verb or as a modal verb with no difference in meaning. When it is used as a main verb it is followed by a to - infinitive and takes -s in the third person singular. We form questions and negations with do/does. Mike needs to buy some new clothes. You don't need to do this right now.

Need is used as a modal verb mainly in questions and negations. Need I (Do I need) book a room in advance? - You needn't

Absence of Necessity (Needn’t / Don’t have to / Don’t need to – Didn’t need to – Needn’t have done).

♦ needn't/don't have to/don't need to + present infinitive (present or future) = it isn't necessary to do smth. You needn't/don't have to I don't need to work tonight. (It isn't necessary for you to work tonight.)

♦ didn't need to didn't have to = it was not necessary to do sth

This structure suggests that an action did not happen in the past because we knew then that it was not necessary. She didn't need to/didn't have to take a taxi. (It wasn't necessary, so she didn't.)

♦ needn't + bare perfect infinitive = it was not necessary to do sth, but it was done This structure shows that an action happened in the past, even though it was not necessary. You needn't have bought any bread. I'd already bought some. (It wasn't necessary, but you did.)

Prohibition (Mustn’t / Can’t) = it is forbidden to do sth/you are not allowed to do sth/it is against the rules/law to do sth. You mustn't/can't drive over 35 mph. (= It's against the law. You are not allowed to …)

Logical Assumptions (Must – Can’t / Couldn’t)

♦ must = I'm sure/certain that sth is true

Must is used in affirmative sentences and expresses positive logical assumptions. It is Sunday. He must be at home. (I'm sure)

♦ can't/couldn't = I'm sure that sth isn't true, real, etc. Can't and Couldn't are used in negations and expresses negative logical assumptions. It is Sunday. He can't/couldn't be at work. (I'm sure)

Probability (Should / Ought) = probably

Should and ought are used to express that smth is likely to happen in the present or future. It's 10 o'clock. He should be/ought to be at work.

Possibility (Can - Could / May – Might)

♦ can + present infinitive = general possibility (theoretically possible)

This structure is used in affirmative sentences to show that smth is possible theoretically or in general, that is, when we are not referring to a specific situation. This road can get very busy. (In general, not in a specific situation.)

♦ Could/May/Might + present Infinitive = it is possible/it is likely/perhaps It is used to show that something is likely to happen in a specific situation. The roads could I may I might get very busy tomorrow afternoon because there is a demonstration. (NOT: The roads budget)

In questions we use can (to talk about general or specific possibility), could or might. We do not use may. I got a bouquet of flowers, but there was no card. Who can I could I might they be from?

♦ could/might + perfect Infinitive (refers to the past) = it was possible, but it didn't happen. Yesterday, I left the car unlocked. It could/might have been stolen, but luckily it wasn't.

Permission (Can / Could / May / Might)

♦ Asking for permission.

Can/Could/May/Might I...? = Do you/Would you mind if...?

Could and may are more polite than can. Might is formal. May and Might are used to ask for permission when we do not know the other person very well. We normally reply with: Certainly/Of course/Why not?/No, Im afraid you cant. Can I use your pen for a minute? - Of course. May I see the manager, please? - Certainly.

♦ Giving permission

can/may = you are allowed to do sth (can - informal, may - formal)

May is usually used in writing. You may make a phone call here.

We do not use could or might to give permission.

Could I borrow your dictionary? - Yes, you can/may (NOT: could)

♦ Refusing permission

can't/mustn't/may not = you are not allowed to do sth

May not is formal and is usually used in writing.

I'm sorry, but you can't/mustn't use.. Customers may not enter this area.

We do not use couldn't to refuse permission.

♦ Talking about permission

We use can and be allowed to to refer to laws or regulations.

All citizens over the age of 18 can /are allowed to vote (law)

There is a difference in meaning btw may / be allowed to in questions.

a) May I use your phone? (= Will you allow me to use your phone?)

b) Are we allowed to use the office phone? (= What is the rule?)

We use could or was/were allowed to to say that we had general permission to do something in the past.

We use was/were allowed to and not could, to say that we had permission to do something in a particular situation in the past.

I could/was allowed to go to parties when I was young. (I was allowed to go to parties in general.) BUT: I was allowed to go to John's party last night. (NOT: I could go - as this is a particular situation)

Requests (Can / Could / Will / Would / May / Might)

Can/Could/Wlil/Would you...? - We use this structure to ask someone to do something for us. Can and will are informal. Would and could are more polite than can and will.

Can/Will you get me a glass of water? (informal) Could/Would you type these letters for me, please? (more polite)

We normally reply with: yes, Id (would) be happy to. Yes, Id be glad to. / Certainly / Of course / I’т sorry, but I can't

May/Might/Can/Could I...? - We use this structure to ask for something politely. Might is formal and is not often used.

Can/Could/May I have a piece of that cake, please?

We normally reply with: (Yes) Certainly / Of course

Offers (I’ll – Shall / Can / Could)

I'll = I'm willing to do something (informal). I’ll do the ironing for you.

Shall/Can/Could l/we...? = Would you like me/us to...?/Do you want me/us to...? Shall/Can/Could I give you a hand with the preparations?

Suggestions (Shall / Can / Could)

♦ Shall l/we / Why don't we / How about / I/We can/could / What about...? / Let's... Shall we go the theatre tomorrow night? - I'd rather not. We can/could go to the cinema instead.

♦ We use shall in questions when we are asking for suggestions or instructions. Where shall I put these flowers? - In this vase.

Advise (Should / Ought / Must)

♦ should/ought + present infinitive = I advise you to/You had better do sth. It's late. You should go/ought to go home as soon as possible.

♦ We use must to give strong advice. Compare: You must follow a healthy diet, the doctor said to me. (an order which is likely to be obeyed). You should follow/ought to follow a healthy diet, my friend said to me. (a piece of advice which may or may not be followed)

Criticism (Should / Ought) + perfect inf = it would have been better if you had... We use these structures to criticize someone else's actions.

You should (ought to) have come to me for help. (But you didn't.)

Passive Voice__________________________________________

Voice is the grammatical category of the verb which shows the relations between the subject and the action expressed by the verb.

The PV shows that the subject of the sentence is doer (or the agent) of the action denoted by the verb In the sentence.

The PV Is formed by the means of noun or pronoun plus auxiliary verb to be plus PII. Only transitive verbs can be used In passive.

Forms (10) Indefinite Continuous Perfect

Present I am invited I am being invited I have been Invited

Past I was invited I was being invited I had been Invited

Future I shall be invited - I shall have been invited

Fut in the P I should be invited - I should have been invited

The PV can be used with the modal verbs as well (must, can, could, may, might, should, ought to, to have, to be).

Usage

1) When the person who carries the action is unknown, unimportant or obvious from the context. Coffee beans are grown In Brazil.

2) When the action is more important than the person who carries it out, as in news headlines, articles, formal notices. The new hospital will be opened on May 14.

3) When we refer to an unpleasant event and we do not to say who or what to blame. A lot of mistakes have been made.

Sometimes when we want to point out the person who carries the action we use preposition by before the agent. It was made by me.

We should remember that with the verbs which take two objects such as bring, tell, send, show, teach, promise, buy, write, allow, pay, lend, owe, feed, pass we can make two different passive sentences:

• She was given some sweets.

• Some sweets were given to her.

If the verb in the sentence is used with the preposition we keep it in passive voice. He was looked at.

In the Complex object construction with the verb make in active we use the infinitive without to but in passive we use to. He was made to do it. The same with the verbs: help, send and hear.

The passive construction is used in Complex Subject construction as well. He is said to be the teacher.

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The Forbidden City is situated in the centre of Beijing. It was built as the Imperial Palace for the emperors of China. It was named the Forbidden City because no common or foreign person was allowed to go inside without special permission.

We form the passive with the verb to be and the past participle of the main verb.

The present perfect continuous, the future continuous, the past perfect continuous and the future perfect continuous are not normally used in the passive.

We can use the verb to get instead of the verb to be in everyday speech when we talk about things that happen by accident or unexpectedly.

Four people got hurt in the car crash. (= Four people were hurt...)

♦ when the person who carries out the action is unknown, unimportant or obvious from the context.

a) My flat was broken into last week. (We do not know who broke into the flat.)

b) Coffee beans are grown in Brazil. (It is not important to know who grows the coffee.)

c) My car was serviced yesterday. (It is obvious that a mechanic serviced it.)

♦ when the action itself is more important than the person who carries it out, as in news headlines, newspaper articles, formal notices, instructions, advertisements, processes, etc.

a) The new hospital will be opened by the Queen on May 15th. (formal notice)

b) Then, the milk is taken to a factory where it is pasteurised, (process)

♦ when we refer to an unpleasant event and we do not want to say who or what is to blame.

A lot of mistakes have been made, (instead of You have made a lot of mistakes)

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