Ways of Translating the For-to-lnfinitive Constructions

...he heard her moving about... він чув, як вона ходила по

the room. (W.Jacobs) кімнаті.

Не listened to his uncle talk- Він слухав, як дядько вів

ing to him... (Hemingway) розмову/розмовляв з ним.

2. With the help of the adverbial subordinate clauses of time,
purpose, manner, etc., which testifies to the existence of functional discrepancies in the two languages at the level of syntactic structure, function, and content. For example:

/ had seen him last Septem- Я бачив його минулого року

ber coming across the square у вересні, коли він переходив
towards the bar of the Continen- майдан до бару в ресторані
tal... (Greene) Континенталь...

І took pains not to send them Я докладав зусиль, щоб

(stones) tumbling down the slope, каміння не зірвалося з-під ніг і
(S. О Veil) не покотилося вниз.

3. On rarer occasions a faithful translation of the objective with
the present participle construction may be achieved either with the
help of an object subordinate clause or with the help of a semantically
equivalent substantival word-group:

/ heard someone weeping. Я чув, як хтось плакав /

(G.Green) чийсь плач.

Then I heard Pvle whispering: Потім я почув Пайлів

«Thomas, Thomas.» (Ibid.) шепіт/ як Пайл шепнув: «То-

масе, Томасе.»

Не found the prices declining Він помітив зниження цін/

in summer. (Int. Her. Tribune) що ціни знижуються влітку.

4. With the help of the finite form of the verb, i.e., with the help
of the simple verbal predicate:

«I can see vou marrying after «Ти, бачу, як підіп'єш, то ще

a drink too many.» (Greene) станеш женихатися тут.»

some ways of translation of the objective with the past participle constructions some­times differ from those employed for the translation of the objective with the present participle or the objective with the infinitive constructions. The main of these ways coincide, however, and are the following:

1. With the help of an object subordinate clause:

/ heard his name mentioned Я чув, шо /як його ім'я

in the crowd. (Saroyan) називали у натовпі.

2. This objective with the participle construction may also be translated with the help of a noun in the metaphorical paraphrase: Я чув його ім'я на вустах натовпу.

3. By transplanting the participial complex to Ukrainian sen­tences having here identical predicative constructions:

When I returned I found the Прийшовши додому, я

fence broken and the house door застав паркан проломаним, а
opened. (O'Dell) хатні двері відчиненими.

The subjective with the participle (or the nominative with the participle constructions, as they are traditionally called) are translated into Ukrainian much like the above-treated subjective with the infinitive secondary predication constructions.

1) English simple sentences with the subjective present participle constructions/complexes are mostly transformed in Ukrainian into a complex sentence introduced by the one-member indefinite-personal principal clause or by the infinitive performing the same syntactic func­tion. The introductory indefinite personal/principal clauses and infini­tives are Кажуть/Як кажуть; Повідомляють; Повідомляється, що; Очікується, що/Очікують, що. This kind of transformations have to be with the verbs of saying/reporting or with the verbs of physical or men­tal perceptions (to see, to hear, to know, etc.). The principal clause then (the single verb indefinite personal sentence) is followed by an object subordinate clause:

He had been seen... press- Бачили,... як він

ing his warm lips to the marble притулявся своїми теплими
brow of an antique statue, вустами до мармурового чола
(О. Wilde) античної статуї.

2) The subjective with the past participle constructions, which are used in English with the verbs to appear, to seem, to have etc., do not require considerable structural transformations in the process of translation into Ukrainian. Their meaning is usually conveyed by means of the same simple sentences as in English, with the past participle turned into the predicate verb:

He had his eyes fixed always Він завжди спрямовував

on the future. (London) свій погляд у майбутнє.

This sentence, accordingly, may also be translated word-for-word: Він завжди мав свій погляд спрямованим у майбутнє./Його погляд завжди був спрямований у майбутнє.

25. Text is any verbalized (i.e. expressed by means of human language) communicative event performed by means of human language, no matter whether this communication is performed in written or in oral mode. Discourse is a complex communicative phenomenon, which includes, besides the text itself, other factors of interaction (such as shared knowl-edge, communicative goals, cognitive systems of participants, their cultural competence, etc.), i.e. all that is necessary for successful production and adequate interpretation (comprehension and translation) of the text. Therefore text is embedded into discourse and both of them are "materialized" in a communicative situation, which in its turn is embedded into the macro-context of interaction: cultural, social, economic, political, historical, religious, etc. Cohesion may be defined as the way certain words or grammatical features of a sentence can connect that sentence to its predecessors (and successors) in a text. Therefore, cohesion helps to understand a text as a whole, to comprehend its topic and to interpret (as well as to translate) text correctly. Coherence, which is understood as a quality assigned to text by a reader or listener, and is a measure of the extent to which the reader or listener finds that the text holds together and makes sense as a unity. Artefact texts (non-fictional texts) - Such texts are used either for "changing" the real world or for reporting statements about it,.i.e. for "reflecting" the real world. Examples are: texts of constitutions, statutes, laws, international treaties and agreements, conventions, business contracts, proto-cols, business letters, rules and regulations, etc. (i.e., texts that "change the world"), academic texts of science, medicine and other fields of re-search which inform the reader about the results of academic studies and outline ways of practical implementation of these results, various reports, news items, etc. (i.e., texts that "reflect the world"). mentafact texts - which influence the real world indirectly, through artistic images, and hidden knowledge, which the reader has to infer from them. These are mostly fictional texts of poetry, drama and prose. "grey zone" - they perform persuasive function of human speech. including editorials, journalistic articles, essays, TV and radio commentaries, as well as texts of memoirs, public and political speeches, etc., i.e. texts which deal with the facts of the real world but have certain linguistic features of fictional texts (emotional colouring, author's evaluation of the events, the use of stylistic devices and expressive means of the language — everything which is aimed at "persuasion" of the addressee).

26. Pragmatic analysis of text. every text may be represented as a sign that has its communicative macro proposition or “CMP” (“communicative nucleus” or “centre”) which is composed of the pragmatic component of the text and
its compressed proposition (i.e. the contents of the text or “what the text is about”).
The pragmatic component of the text has three main elements:
- singular or collective author (“I” or “we”);
- singular or collective addressee (“you”);
- illocutionary verb V._Ugc which indicates the communicative intention of the author; examples of such verbs are: agree, announce, undertake, promise, guarantee, congratulate, ask, warn, inform, confirm, pronounce, declare, thank, insist, etc.).
Compressed proposition comes after the pragmatic component and represents the compressed meaning of the text (its compressed “topic”). Another important notion of pragmatic texts analysis is the category of deixis. Deixis is expressed through deictic markers, which are words and grammar patterns of any language indicating the participants (per­sons involved in the act of communication), the space and the time of the act of human communication. These are words like I, you, he, she, it, we, they, my, his, her, our, their, this, that, the (in the meaning “this”, “my”), here, there, everywhere, upstairs, in London, in the street, today, yesterday, in 1998, last century, was found shot dead, was facing, had been beautiful, i.e. practically all words and grammar patterns, which indicate the person, the space and the time of the action. every text (act of communication) has three “deictic axes” by which information is transmitted from the author to the addressee: a) the “I - here - now” axis; b) the “you -around you - now” axis; the “he (she, they) - there - then” axis.

27. Gender markers. English, in particular, in treated as the "masculine-biased" language. In modern English there are practically no purely grammatical gen-der markers and nouns are traditionally divided into three classes mainly by their lexical meaning:
- masculine (mask.) — names of male beings: father, boy, brother, son;
- feminine (fern.) — names of female beings: girl, woman, mother, sister;
- neuter (neut.) — names of lifeless things: mountain, house, table, car. Therefore in most cases gender in English is expressed lexically (man — woman; boy — girl, king — queen). However in a limited number of cases it may also be expressed morphologically (by adding the feminine gender forming suffix -ess: hostess, actress, lioness, tigress) and by lexical and syntactical means (woman-doctor, girl-cashier, hen-pigeon, she-goat, he-bear).

Gender markers characteristic of male speech:
1) men often in their speech used military language. Men are more knowledgeable in such areas as sports, hunting, professional and military areas(eg, To patrol, War, Violence, Anti-War movement, Military facilities)
2) the use of a large number of abstract nouns also describes the speech of men (eg, Fear, Dependence, Greed, Irresponsibility, Failure, Choice, Age Etc.);
3) men use words with the least emotional coloring, and monotonous stylistic means used (such epithets New, Current, Badly Etc.);
4) The men are widely used newspaper and journalistic clichés (eg, To call for Action);
5) men more often use obscene words;
6) men more clearly using negative evaluation.
gender markers specific to women
1. The use of "hedges" or "parenthesis", e.g.: sort of; I guess, kind of; you know; well; you see, etc.
2. Excessive use of super-polite forms of expression, e.g.: would you please; I'd really appreciate it if you would do something; would you be so kind and do something;
3. The use of "tag questions", e.g.: The crisis in Kosovo is terrible, isn't it?; But you can switch on the light, can you?
4. Speaking "in italics" (ніби то виділяючи певні слова курсивом), i.e. the use of emphatic so or very which is equivalent to underlining words in written language, e.g.: This is a very important subject. This problem is of so much importance.
5. The use of the "empty" adjectives or adverbs, such as divine; daunting; charming; sweet; adorable; tremendous significant; phenomenal; des-perate; desperately, etc.,
6. Hypercorrect grammar and pronunciation.
7. Lack of a sense of humor which means that women are usually poor at telling jokes comparing to men.
8. Direct quotations, e.g.: I asked him: "Why did you come home so late?" and he said: "I was in the pub having some beer with my friends"; I said to my husband: "What do I do now?" and he said: "Go to the other side and speak to them".
9. Special vocabulary, e.g. the use of diminutive forms or specialized colour terms, e.g. piglet; kitty; chubby; sweetheart; honey; The Queen wore a yellow dress and a green hat; He was in a dark blue suit etc.
10. Question intonation in declarative contexts, which may cause a problem for interpreters desperately trying to figure out whether what was said should be regarded as a statement or as a question.

28. Cohesion is the grammatical and lexical linking within a text or sentence that holds a text together and gives it meaning. There are two main types of cohesion: grammatical cohesion which is based on structural content, and lexical cohesion which is based on lexical content and background knowledge.
Grammatical cohesion plays an important role in linking together the contents of text by various grammatical means, such as conjunctions, prepositions, rules of the sequence of tenses, relationship of co-ordination and subordination established between clauses of composite sentences.
Lexical cohesion is implemented through repetition, which is defined as the occurrence of one or more lexical items (words or word combinations) in a sentence that by themselves tell the reader or listener nothing new but reinstate some elements from earlier sentences so that something new can be said about them.

29. Types of lexical repetition. There are the following main types of lexical repetition observed in texts.
1. Simple lexical repetition occurs when a lexical item that has already occurred in the text is repeated with no greater alteration than can be ex­plained in terms of a grammatical paradigm (e.g., singular vs. plural form; present vs. past; first person singular vs. third person singular; active voice vs. passive voice, etc.), e.g.: bear - bears', scientist - scientists; eat - ate;he - him;go -goes;стіл- столи;журнал- журнали;читаю- читав;він- його,etc.).Only lexical words (повнозначні слова) can enter into such a link.
2. Complex lexical repetition occurs when two lexical items share a lexical morpheme, but are not formally identical, or when they are for­mally identical, but belong to different parts of speech (or, rather, have different grammatical functions), e.g.: drug - drugging; a table - to table; politics -political; academy - academic; to travel - travelling - traveller; hero - heroism; книга - книжковий; сіль-солоний; їжа - їсти; мужністьх- мужній, etc.). Certain antonyms that share a common lexi­cal morpheme also make up complex lexical repetition patterns, e.g.: happy- unhappy; audible - inaudible; contented - discontented; adequate - inadequate, etc.
3. Simple paraphrase occurs whenever a lexical item may substitute another item in context with no important change in meaning. Here belong most of the contextual synonyms, e.g.: produce - cause; statesman- politician; book- volume; works - writings; sedate - tranquillize; present- gift; sleep - dream; робота- праця; особа- людина; викликати - спричиняти, etc.
4. Complex paraphrase occurs when one of the lexical items includes the other, although they may share no lexical morpheme. Here, belong certain antonyms that share no lexical morpheme, e.g.: happy - sad;; hot - cold; dry -wet; true - false; old - young; день- нічЮ гарно- погано, стояти – лежати.
5. Co-reference repetition occurs when two items are interpreted as
having the same referent (i.e., when two words refer to the same object of
the real world in the given context), e.g.: my computer - machine; Mr.
Tony Blair - British Prime Minister; Calligula -the Emperor; William Blake -poet;
Tapac Шевченко- Кобзар, etc.
6. Substitution links occur when certain lexical substitute items
such as, first of all, pronouns, (e.g.: he, she, it, they, this, that, these, those, the first one, another one, the same, etc.) stands in for textual lexical items. e.g.: bears - they, a cat - it;Mr. Blair - he; жінка – вона, явище – воно, собака – він.

1. Transformations are changes, which are caused by lexical and grammatical differences between languages.
   Grammatical transformations in translation
   
   1. Transposition is a change in the order of words in phrases and sentences, which is often caused by the structural differences in express­ing the theme and the rheme in different languages. E.g.: A girl entered the room - У кімнату увійшла дівчина.
   2. Grammatical replacement is substitution of the word belonging to one part of speech by a word belonging to another part of speech (morphological replacement) or substitution of one syntactical construc­tion by another one (syntactical replacement). E.g.: He is a good runner - Він гарно бігає.
   3. Addition is used to compensate for semantic or grammatical losses and often accompanies transposition and grammatical replacement. E.g.: His wife had been beautiful - Його дружина колись (або у молодості) була красунею.
   4. Omission is a transformation opposite to addition and is used with the aim to avoid redundant information. E.g.: the right to rest and leisure - право на відпочинок
   Lexical and semantic transformations in translation
   1. Generalization of meanings, which is substitution of the source language words (phrases) of a narrow meaning by the target language words (phrases) of a general (broader) meaning. E.g.: My baby is 18 months - Моїй дитині півторароки
   2. Differentiation of meanings is caused by the fact that many En­glish words with broad semantics do not have direct equivalents in Ukrai­nian. In such cases dictionaries give a number of meanings that only partially cover the meaning of the source language word and translators have to choose one of the variants, which suits the context best of all. Thus affection may be rendered as щиросердя but not obligatory as любов, прихильність, симпатія
   3. Concretization (substantiation) of meanings is substitution of the source language words (phrases) with a generic meaning by the tar­get language words (phrases) with a more specific (narrow) meaning. Concretization is always combined with differentiation. E.g.: Run for the presidency - Змагання за посаду президента.
   4. Logical (or sense) development is the substitution in translation of the dictionary equivalent by the contextual one, which is logically connected with the first.
   5. Antonymous translation is the substitution of the source language notion by its opposite in translation with the relevant restructuring of the utterance aimed at faithful rendering of its content.
   6. Full rearrangement of the text segment. This transformation rearranges the inner form of any segment of text: starting with a word, a phrase and ending up with a complete sentence. Full rearrangement is very often used in rendering colloquial set expressions and idioms.
   7. Compensation for losses in the course of translation. there are instances when a word or another element of the source text is not rendered at all or is substituted by a formerly different one.

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