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ТОР 5 статей:

Методические подходы к анализу финансового состояния предприятия

Проблема периодизации русской литературы ХХ века. Краткая характеристика второй половины ХХ века

Ценовые и неценовые факторы

Характеристика шлифовальных кругов и ее маркировка

Служебные части речи. Предлог. Союз. Частицы

КАТЕГОРИИ:






Modifications of vowels.

In discussing vowels we should turn to vowel reduction. The modification of vowels in a speech chain are traced in the following directs: they are either quantitative or qualitative or both. These changes of vowels in a speech continuum are determined by a number of factors such as the position of the vowel in the word, accentual structure, tempo of speech, rhythm, etc.

The decrease of the vowel quantity or in the words the shortening of the vowel length is known as a quantitative modification of vowels:

1. The shortening of the vowel length occurs in unstressed position. In these cases reduction affects both the length of the unstressed vowels and their quality.

2. The length of a vowel depends on its position in a word.

Qualitative modification of most vowels occurs in unstressed positions. Unstressed vowels lose their “colour”, their quality.

1. In Unstressed syllables vowels of full value are usually subjected to qualitative changes: man – sportsman. In this case the quality of the vowel is reduced to the neutral sound.

2. Slight degree of nasalization marks vowels preceded or followed by the nasal consonants [n], [m]: never, no, then, men.

The realization of reduction as well as assimilation and accommodation is connected with the style of speech. In rapid colloquial speech reduction may result in vowel elision, the complete omission of the unstressed vowel, which is also known as zero reduction. Zero reduction is likely to occur in a sequence of unstressed syllables: history, literature.

 

 

  1. The articulation basis of English and that of the student’s mother tongue. Articulatory distinction of typologically identical sounds in the student’s mother tongue.

The summary of all main principles of articulation in a certain language is called the Articulation basis. The main points of difference between the articulation basis of English and Russian are as follows. The tongue in English is more tense and balky and has a retracted position for most of the phonemes. The lips are more tense and less movable than in Russia. They are mostly spread (with lower teeth revealed) or neutral (flat articulation). Forelingual English consonants (they are 12) have an apical articulation: they are articulated with the tongue-tip against the alveoli, as /t, s, d, z, n, l, / or against teeth / /. The corresponding Russian ones are articulated with the blade of the tongue against the teeth (dorsal articulation), except for /щ, ж/

All English consonants are hard (except) and have no palatalized oppositions with the Russian ones have. Palatalization in English is a phonetic mistake.

The English word-final voiced consonants must not be devocalized (which is the norm for the Russian language). The English plosive voiceless /p, t, k/ are pronounced with aspiration which is foreign to Russian. The English sonorants /m, n, l/ are tenser and longer than the corresponding Russian ones and they are syllabic when post-tonic and preceded by a consonant.

 

7. The system of English phonemes. Types of transcription: broad and narrow. Basic problems of phonetic transcription. International Phonetic Alphabet.

The phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit which is capable of differentiating the meaning and the grammar forms of words. Phonemes are elements of the language. The number of them is quite definite for every separate language. In British English there are 44 phonemes, 20 vowel phonemes and 24 consonants one. In speech they manifest themselves in the form of phonemic variants or allophones.

The allophone is a material representation of the phoneme n speech. They appear in connected speech as a result of assimilation and reduction or due to the individual speech habits. The number of allophones in a language is unlimited.

Basically the symbols are one of two purpose: either they are symbols for phonemes (phonemic or phoneme symbols) or they are phonetic symbols. We will look first at phonemic symbols. The most important point to remember is rather obvious-seeming fact that the number of phonemic symbols must be exactly the same as the number of phonemes we decide exist in the language.

Phonemic transcription is a transcription in which every speech sound must identified as one of the phonemes and written with the appropriate symbol.

A Phonetic transcription containing a lot of information about the exact quality of the sounds would be called a narrow phonetic transcription, while one which only included a little more information than a phonemic transcription would be called a broad phonetic transcription.

 

Phonetic transcription is a sort of phonetic alphabet, a system of symbols in which every phoneme is supposed to have its own symbol. It is possible to speak about three types of phonetic transcription.

The International phonetic transcription. It was introduced by the International phonetic Association in 1887. But the science of phonetic has been considerably developed since then. It suggests the same symbol for different phonemes [i:] – [i]; [u:] – [u], which gives the wrong impression the those phonemes differ only in their length.

The Phonemic transcription. (broad) In the phonemic transcription every phoneme is given an individual symbol, the number of which is 44 (according to the number of phonemes in British English). Words and sentences transcribed with the help of this phonetic script are placed between the slanting brackets.

The Allophonic transcription (narrow). In this type of transcription every allophone has either a special symbol or a diacritical mark. The brackets are also different. It is used in doing research work in the field of phonetics.

 

  1. English consonants. Problems of their phonological analysis and classification.

The consonant is a speech sound in the production of which the air stream coming out of the lungs has to overcome a certain obstruction on its way. The English consonant system consists of 24 consonant phonemes which can be classifies as follows:

  1. according to the type of obstruction (occlusives, constrictive, occlusive-constrictives or affricates).
  2. according to the articulatory organ (labial, lingual, glottal)
  3. according to the work of the vocal cords (voiced, voiceless)
  4. according to the prevalence of noise over the musical tone (noise consonants and sonorats)
  5. according to the position of the soft plate (oral, nasal)

Each sound is known to have 3 aspects: acoustic, articulatory and auditory and therefore can be studied on these 3 levels. For the sake of analysis each aspect can be considered and described independently though we should take it reasonably obvious that there is no sharp dividing line between them.

 

  1. English vowels. Problems of their analysis and classification.

The vowel is a speech sound in the production of which the air stream coming out of the lungs meets no obstruction on its way.

The English vowels system consists of 20 vowel phonemes which can be classifies according to the following principles:

  1. according to the stability of articulation we distinguish 12 monophthongs and 8 diphthongs.
  2. according to the position of the bulk of the tongue we distinguish: front (the fully front/i, e, ae/ and the front retracted /i/), central / /, back vowels (the back advanced / / and the fully back / /)
  3. according to the tongue-height high (narrow / /, broad / /), mid(narrow / /, broad / /), low (narrow / /, broad / /).
  4. according to the duration (length) we distinguish long and short vowel phonemes.
  5. according to the degree of muscular tention we classified them into tense and lax. (all short vowels)
  6. according to the lip-position hey are distinguished as labialised / / and non-labialised.

 

  1. Syllable as a phonetic and phonological unit. The phonotatic structure and types of syllables in English, their graphical representation. Functions of a syllable.

It is generally known that speech is a continuum. However, it can be broken into minimal pronounceable units into which sounds show a tendency to cluster or group themselves. These smallest phonetic groups are generally given the name syllables. Being the smallest pronounceable units, the syllables form language units of great magnitude, that is morphemes, words and phrases. Each of these units is characterized by a certain syllabic structure. Consequently we might say that a meaningful language unit has two aspects: syllable formation and syllable division which form a dialectical unity.

It is necessary to mention that the syllable is a fairly complicated phenomenon and like the phoneme it can be studies on four levels: acoustic, articulatory and functional, which means that the syllable can be approached from different points of view.

The syllable is by no means a simple concept. No phonetician has succeeded so far in giving an exhaustive and adequate explanation of what the syllable is. The difficulties seem arise from the various possibilities of approach to the unit. We could say there exist two points of view:

1. Some linguists consider the syllable to be a purely articulatory unit which lacks any functional value. This point of view is defended on the grounds that the boundaries of the syllable do not always coincide with hose of the morphemes.

2. However the majority of linguists treat the syllable as the smallest pronounceable unit which can reveal some linguistic function.

The definition of the syllable from the functional point of view existing in modern linguistics tends to single out the following features of the syllable:

1. a syllable is a chain of phonemes of varying length

2. a syllable is constructed on the basis of consonant of its constituents

3. the nucleus of a syllable is a vowel, the presence of consonant is optional; there are no languages in which vowels are not used as a syllable nuclei, however, there are languages in which this function is performed by consonants;

4. the distribution of phonemes in the syllabic structure follows the rules which are specific enough for a particular language.

We could enumerate the following peculiarities of the syllabic structure ofg English which should arrest the learner’s attention:

1. syllabic boundary is inside intervocalic consonant preceded by vowels: money, racket

2. syllabic boundary is before an intervocalic consonant if it is not preceded by the above-mentioned vowels: later, speaker

3. the sonorates [l], [m], [n] are syllabic if they are preceded by noise consonants: little, blossom

4. there cannot be more that 1 vowel within a syllable

5. the typical and most fundamental syllabic structure is of VC type

6. word final consonants are normally of weak-end type.

There are two very important functions of syllable. The 1st function is the constitutive function. It lies in its ability to be a part of a word or a word itself. The syllable forms language units of great magnitude, that is words, morphemes and utterances. In this respect 2 things should be emphasized. 1st, the syllable is the unit within which the relations between the distinctive features of the phonemes and their acoustic correlates are revealed. 2nd, within a syllable prosodic characteristics of speech are realized, which form the stress-pattern of a word and a rhythmic and intonation structures on an utterance. In sum, the syllable is a specific minimal structure of both segmental and suprasegmental features.

The other function is distinctive function. In this respect the syllable is characterized by its ability to differentiate words and word-forms.

 

  1. Syllable formation theories. Main problems of the phonetic aspect of the syllable in English.

Syllable formation in English is based on the phonological opposition vowel – consonant. Vowels are usually syllabic while consonants are not, with the exception of [l], [m], [n] which become syllabic if they occur in an unstressed final position proceeded by a noise consonant.

The structure of the syllable is known to vary because of the number and the arrangement of consonants. In English there are distinguished 4 types of syllable;

1. Open

2. Closed

3. Covered

4. Uncovered.

Due to its structure the English language has developed the closed type of syllable as the fundamental one while in Russian it is the open type that forms the basis of syllable formation. The number of syllable varieties from the point of view of their structure is 23. As to the number of syllables in the English word it can vary from 1 to 8: come, family, incompatibility.

The other aspect of the dialectical unity which characterizes the speech continuum is syllable division. The linguistic importance of syllable division in different languages is in finding typology of syllables and syllabic structure of meaningful units of a language, that is morphemes and words. It is the syllable division that determines the syllabic structure of the language, its syllabic typology.

In the English language the problem of syllable division exists only in case of intervocalic consonants and their clusters like the words city, agree, extra and other. In such cases the point of syllable division is not easily found. Theoretically two variants are possible:

- The point of syllable division is after the intervocalic consonant

- The point of syllable division is inside the consonant.

In both cases the 1st syllable remains closed according to phonotactic rules of the English language, because the short vowels should remain checked. The Russian learners of English should keep in mind that in the Russian language the stressed syllable in the structure (C)VCV(C) is always open, for example у-хо, мя-та, while in English this kind of syllable is always closed if the syllabic vowel is short and checked. Another type of intervocalic consonant clusters (VCCV type – agree, abrupt) – to determine the syllabic boundary in words of this type is necessary to apply phonological criteria, the 1st of which might be the distribution of segmental phonemes. These words should be divided into syllables in the following way e-gri:, e-br…pt because such combinations of consonants as [gr], [br] are permissible initial clusters for the English language.

 

  1. Phonotactics as a branch of phonology. Basic rules of syllable division. Typical phonotactic possibilities in the structure of English syllables and words. Phonological constraints on sound clusters in the onset and coda.

Phonology is the study of the sound system of languages, and of the general properties displayed by these systems. By contrast with phonetics, which studies all possible sounds that the human vocal apparatus can make, phonology studies only those contrasts in sound which make differences of meaning within language. When we listen carefully to the way people speak English, we will hear hundreds of slight differences in the way individuals pronounce particular sounds.

Syllable formation in English is based on the phonological opposition vowel – consonant. Vowels are usually syllabic while consonants are not, with the exception of [l], [m], [n] which become syllabic if they occur in an unstressed final position proceeded by a noise consonant.

The structure of the syllable is known to vary because of the number and the arrangement of consonants. In English there are distinguished 4 types of syllable;

5. Open

6. Closed

7. Covered

8. Uncovered.

Due to its structure the English language has developed the closed type of syllable as the fundamental one while in Russian it is the open type that forms the basis of syllable formation. The number of syllable varieties from the point of view of their structure is 23. As to the number of syllables in the English word it can vary from 1 to 8: come, family, incompatibility.

The other aspect of the dialectical unity which characterizes the speech continuum is syllable division. The linguistic importance of syllable division in different languages is in finding typology of syllables and syllabic structure of meaningful units of a language, that is morphemes and words. It is the syllable division that determines the syllabic structure of the language, its syllabic typology.

In the English language the problem of syllable division exists only in case of intervocalic consonants and their clusters like the words city, agree, extra and other. In such cases the point of syllable division is not easily found. Theoretically two variants are possible:

- The point of syllable division is after the intervocalic consonant

- The point of syllable division is inside the consonant.

In both cases the 1st syllable remains closed according to phonotactic rules of the English language, because the short vowels should remain checked. The Russian learners of English should keep in mind that in the Russian language the stressed syllable in the structure (C)VCV(C) is always open, for example у-хо, мя-та, while in English this kind of syllable is always closed if the syllabic vowel is short and checked. Another type of intervocalic consonant clusters (VCCV type – agree, abrupt) – to determine the syllabic boundary in words of this type is necessary to apply phonological criteria, the 1st of which might be the distribution of segmental phonemes. These words should be divided into syllables in the following way e-gri:, e-br…pt because such combinations of consonants as [gr], [br] are permissible initial clusters for the English language.

  1. Word accent as a component of the phonetic structure of a word and its functions. Acoustic and perceptual cues to word accent. Types of word accents. Linguistically relevant degreed of word stress.

Word stress – is a great degree of prominence given to one or more syllables in a word. Stressed and unstressed syllables differ in quantity and quality. They are longer when stressed and carry vowels of full formation. When unstressed they undergo reduction and become shorter.

Word stress should be considered from the point of view of: 1. its place in a word; 2. its degree.

There are 2 degreed of word stress: primary and strong (marked above the syllable) and secondary or weak (marked under the syllable). The place of word-stress depends on the quantity of syllables in a word.

Accent types of words

  1. Mono-, dis- and trisyllabic words are stressed on the 1st syllable. In words with unseparable prefixes the stress falls on the syllable next to the prefix (begin, prepare)
  2. Most of 4-syllable words have the stress laid on the 3rd syllabograph from the end. Political, historical.
  1. Compound nouns are stressed on the 1st component, the 2nd though unstressed, has a vowel of full formation. Blackboard, bookstand.
  2. Polysyllabic words have the primary stress on the 3 syllabograph rom the end and a secondary stress on the second pretonic syllable. University, Examination, assimilation
  3. The following groups of words have 2 primary stresses

- Numerals (13-19)

- Compound adjectives well-known, good-looking

- Composite verb get up, sit down

- Words with separable prefixes unknown, subtitle

The functional aspects of word tress:

  1. Word stress constitutes word, it organized the syllables of a word into a language unit having a definite accentual structure, that is a pattern of relationship among the syllables: a word doesn’t exist without the word stress. Sound continuum becomes a phrase when it is divided into units organized by word stress into words.
  2. Word stress enables a person to identify a succession of syllables as a definite accentual pattern of a word. This function of word stress is known as indentificatory.
  3. Word stress alone is capable of differentiating the meaning of words or their forms, thus performing its distinctive function.

 

 

  1. Word accentuation tendencies and basic word stress patterns in English. Rhythmical patterns of lexical stress in words of Anglo-Saxon origin and in French borrowings.

I would like to point out that the accentual structure of English words is liable to instability due to the different origin of several layers in the modern English wordstock. In Germanic languages the word stress originally fell on the initial syllable or the 2nd syllable, the root syllable in the English words with prefixes. This tendency was called recessive. Most English words of Anglo-Saxon origin as well as the French borrowings are subjected to this recessive tendency. Unrestrictive recessive tendency observed in the native English words having no prefix – mother, daughter, brother; in assimilated French borrowings – reason, colour, restaurant. Restricted recessive tendency marks English words with prefixes – begin, apart, foresee. A great number of words of Anglo-Saxon origin are monosyllabic or disyllabic.

The rhythm of alternating stressed and unstressed syllables have birth to the rhythmical tendency in the present-day English caused the appearance of the secondary stress in the multisyllabic French borrowings – evolution, assimilation.

The appearance of the stress on the 1st syllable is the result of the recessive tendency and at the same time adaptation to the rhythmical tendency.

A 3rd tendency was traces in the instability of the accentual structure of English word stress, the retentive tendency.

 

 

  1. Suprasegmental Phonology. Intonation as the complex semantic unity of suprasegmental features. Different approaches to the definition of intonation and its components.

Phonology is the study of the sound system of languages, and of the general properties displayed by these systems. By contrast with phonetics, which studies all possible sounds that the human vocal apparatus can make, phonology studies only those contrasts in sound which make differences of meaning within language. When we listen carefully to the way people speak English, we will hear hundreds of slight differences in the way individuals pronounce particular sounds.

 

Intonation is a language universal. There are no languages which are spoken as a monotone, without any change of prosodic parameters. But intonation functions in various languages is a different way.

Intonation is a complex unity of a number of components, such as speech melody, utterance stress, rhythm, loudness, tempo, timbre. Intonation realized in speech the following functions:

  1. It organizes words into utterances.
  2. It delimits 1 utterance from another by means of pause
  3. It defines the communicative type of sentence
  4. It expresses the speaker’s attitude towards what he says.

 

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The vowel sound /υ/ as in “book”. | Functionally they may be distinguished syntactic, emphatic and hesitation pauses.


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