IN THE 20TH CENTURY. International wars, together with an intensification of internal stresses and conflicts among social

International wars, together with an intensification of internal stresses and conflicts among social, racial, and ideological groups, have characterized the 20th century and have had profound effects on education. Rapidly spreading prosperity but widening gaps between rich and poor, immense increases in world population but a declining birth rate in Western countries, the growth of large-scale industry and its dependence on science and technological advancement, the increasing power of both organized labour and international business, and the enormous influence of both technical and sociopsychological advances in communication, especially as utilized in mass media, are changes that have had far-reaching effects. Challenges to accepted values, including those supported by religion; changes in social relations, especially toward versions of group and individual equality; and an explosion of knowledge affecting paradigms as well as particular information mark a century of social and political swings, always toward a more dynamic and less categorical resolution. The institutional means of handling this uncertain world have been to accept more diversity while maintaining basic forms and to rely on management efficiency to ensure practical outcomes.

The two world wars weakened the military and political might of the larger European powers. Their replacement by “superpowers” whose influence did not depend directly on territorial acquisition and whose ideologies were essentially equalitarian helped to liquidate colonialism. As new independent nations emerged in Africa and Asia and the needs and powers of a “third world” caused a shift in international thinking, education was seen to be both an instrument of national development and a means of crossing national and cultural barriers. One consequence of this has been a great increase in the quantity of education provided. Attempts have been made to eradicate illiteracy, and colleges and schools have been built everywhere.

The growing affluence of masses of the population in high-income areas in North America and Europe has brought about, particularly since World War II, a tremendous demand for secondary and higher education. Most children stay at school until 16, 17, or even 18 years of age, and a substantial fraction spend at least two years at college. The number of universities in many countries doubled or trebled between 1950 and 1970, and the elaboration of the tertiary level continues.

This growth is sustained partly by the industrial requirements of modern scientific technology. New methods, processes, and machines are continually introduced. Old skills become irrelevant; new industries spring up. In addition, the amount of scientific, as distinct from merely technical, knowledge grows continually. More and more researchers, skilled workers, and high-level professionals are called for. The processing of information has undergone revolutionary change. The educational response has mainly been to develop technical colleges, to promote adult education at all levels, to turn attention to part-time and evening courses, and to provide more training and education within the industrial enterprises themselves.

The adoption of modern methods of food production has diminished the need for agricultural workers, who have headed for the cities. Urbanization, however, brings problems: city centres decay, and there is a trend toward violence. The poorest remain in these centres, and it becomes difficult to provide adequate education. The radical change to large numbers of disrupted families, where the norm is a single working parent, affects the urban poor extensively but in all cases raises an expectation of additional school services. Differences in family background, together with the cultural mix partly occasioned by change of immigration patterns, requires teaching behaviour and content appropriate to a more heterogeneous school population.

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