II. Прочитайте текст и переведите текст. TORTS: The Issue of Private Wrongs

TORTS: The Issue of Private Wrongs

The interest and power of the king in Criminal Law soon swallowed up the tort actions of assault, battery, false imprisonment, theft, bur«glary, arson, murder, mayhem, etc. Tort Law for a time lost its character of strict liability, except for trespass on real property. It later develops some strict liability in manufacture, possession or use of dangerous items (dynamite), stored water on the premises, etc.

Tort Law became the way to address a private wrong, while Criminal Law addressed public wrongs. But the same acts could be a crime! and a tort! Today, although not at first, a person might be sued at both Criminal Law and Tort Law for the exact same acts.

Tort Law asks: (1) Was there duty owed by the defendant to the plaintiff? (2) Was this duty breached! (3) Was the behavior negligent! reckless, intentional, or under strict conduct? (4) Did damage proximately result? (5) Is the proof sufficient to tip the scales of justice?! (6) What compensation is proper?

Proximate cause means two things:

1. Cause in fact: the plaintiffs injury wouldn't have occurred but lot defendant's act;

1. Legal cause: a reasonable relationship between act done and the risk created (foreseeability).

Tort is considered to have several purposes: (1) compensate people for wrongs suffered; (2) place the cost of compensation upon those who, in justice, ought to bear it; (3) prevent future loss and harm (gen- i4 a I and specific deterrence); (4) vindicate the person wronged; and (5) to deter victims from making an individual retaliation for wrongs done.

The difference between crime and tort is seen in the matter of to whom the fault must be acknowledged: to the state (in Criminal Law) or a victim (in Tort Law). There is also a difference in the response of the law: punishment in Criminal Law and compensation to victim in Tort Law.,

Many of the defenses at Criminal Law are available in such as self-defense, necessity, infancy, insanity. The difference is that you are working in the field of preponderance of the evidence rather than pre­emption of innocence: tort liability is easier to prove and harder to de­fend against. What truly happens is that the jury tends to pragmatism as It looks at these defenses, both in crime and in tort.

The defense, which you most frequently encounter in Tort Law, is contributory negligence or comparative negligence. Under the former, the historical approach to torts, if I drove slowly through a red light while you sped through the green light, and we crashed, your negligence (speeding) would prevent you from recovery against my negligence (red light violation). The rule said that if there was any contribu­tory negligence, regardless of how slight, it prohibited recovery. In fact, juries probably weighted the degrees of negligence, and altered the damage award accordingly.

But, because of the question of fairness, the law in the U.S. is now almost totally comparative negligence: that is, the jury decides the per­centage of fault of each party, determines the damage due the plaintiff, and then judge applies a formula which reduces the damages by the percentage of contributing fault of the plaintiff.

Some other defenses in tort actions, which are really just variations on the contributory negligence concept, are: last clear chance; assump­tion of risk; abuse/misuse of product. The first would apply in our car collision: you, if driving reasonably, would have seen my driving slowly through the red light and stopped as you had the last clear chance to avoid the collision.

Assumption of risk says you knew there was a risk to your behavior and you chose to go ahead. If you are then hurt by the anticipated risk, there is no recovery. Abuse/misuse of product is a variation of this in product liability cases: you use the product in a way, in which it was not intended, then you cannot complain if the product fails and you are hurt.

And, of course, foreseeability, mentioned earlier, is a form of de­fense. Just keep in mind that in our system it is the jury, which is going to determine all of these issues. Hopefully they have some common sense, which they bring to the process.

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