FIGURES OF UNEQUALITY

Relations of unequality are the relations of meanings of words and word-combinations with differ in their emotive intensiveness or logical importance. To this group we refer:
1) figures based on actualizing the emotional power of the utterance (climax or anticlimax);
2) figures based on two different meanings of words and word-combinations (pun, zeugma).
Climax, or gradation, (Latin: gradatio – gradualness; Greek: climax – a ladder) is a structure in which every successive word, phrase, or sentence is emotionally stronger or logically more important than the preceding one, e.g. Like a well, like a vault, like a tomb, the prison had no knowledge of the brightness outside /Ch.Dickens/.
There are three types of climax:
1) the arrangement of some lexical units characterizing the object in the same emotional direction, e.g. As he wondered and wondered what to do, he first rejected a stop as impossible, then as improbable, then as quite dreadful. /W.S.Gilbert/;
2) the arrangement of lexical units with logical widening of notions, e.g. For that one instant there was no one else in the room, in the house, in the world, besides themselves. /M.Wilson/;
3) emphatic repetition and enumeration, e.g. Of course it is important. Incredibly, urgently, desperately important /D.Sayers/.
Gradation is widely used in fiction and the publicistic style. It is one of the main means of emotional and logical influence of a text upon the reader and listener.
Anticlimax presents a structure in which every successive word, phrase, or sentence is emotionally or logically less strong than the preceding one, e.g. Fledgeby hasn’t heard anything. "No, there’s not a word of news,” says Lammle. "Not a particle,” adds Boots. "Not an atom,” chimes in Brewer /Ch.Dickens/.
We can distinguish two types of anticlimax:
1) gradual drop in intensity;
2) sudden break in emotive power. In this case, emotive and logical importance is accumulated only to be unexpectedly brought up to a sudden break, e.g. He was unconsolable – for an afternoon /J.Galsworthy/.
Anticlimax is mostly used as a means of achieving a humorous effect.
Pun is a device based on polisemy, homonymy, or phonetic similarity to achieve a humorous effect.
There are several kinds of pun:
1) puns based on polysemy. They had the appearance of men to whom life had appeared as a reversible coat – seamy on both sides. /O.Henry/;
2) puns based on complete or partial homonymy:
Diner: Is it customary to tip a waiter in this restaurant?
Waiter: Why-ah-yes, sir.
Diner: Then hand me a tip. I’ve waited three quarters of an hour.
3) puns based on phonetic similarity:
-I’ve spent last summer in a very pretty city of Switzerland.
-Bern?
-No, I almost froze.
Pun is used for satirical and humorous purposes. Many jokes are based on puns.
Zeugma (Greek: zeugyana – to join, to combine) are parallel constructions with unparallel meaning. It is such a structural arrangement of an utterance in which the basic component is both a part of a phraseological unit and a free word-combination. So, zeugma is a simultaneous realization within the same short context of two meanings of a polysemantic unit, e.g. If the country doesn’t go to the dogs or the Radicals, we shall have you Prime Minister some day /O.Wilde/. The verb " to go ” here realizes two meanings: to go to the dogs (to perish) and to go to the Radicals (to become politically radical).
Zeugma combines syntactical and lexical characteristics. Syntactically, it is based on similar structures, semantically it comprises different meanings, which leads to logical and semantic incompatibility. Zeugma is mainly a means of creating a humorous effect.

Foreshadowing

This is when the author drops clues about what is to come in a story, which builds tension and the reader's suspense throughout the book.

Example: The boy kissed his mother and warmly embraced her, oblivious to the fact that this was the last time he would ever see her.

Allusion

Allusion is a reference to something from history or literature.

Image

This is when the author invokes sensory details. Often, this is simply to draw a reader more deeply into a story by helping the reader visualize what is being described.

Allegory

An allegory is a story that has a second meaning, usually by endowing characters, objects or events with symbolic significance. The entire story functions symbolically; often a pattern relates each literal item to a corresponding abstract idea or principle. Although the surface story may have its own interest, the author's major interest is in the ulterior meaning.

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