Typology of accentual structures.

The numerous variations of English word stress are systematized in the typology of accentual structure of English words worked out by G.P. Torsuyev. He classifies them according to the number of stressed syllables, their degree or character (the main and the secondary stress). The distribution of stressed syllables within the word accentual types forms accentual structures of words. Accentual types and accentual structures are closely connected with the morphological type of words, with the number of syllables, the semantic value of the root and the prefix of the word.

The accentual types are:

1. ['___]. This accentual type marks both simple and compound words. The accentual structures of this type may include two and more syllables, e.g. 'fafher, 'possibly, 'mother-in-law, 'gas-pipe.

2. [ '_ '_ ]. The accentual type is commonly realized in compound words, most of them are with separable prefixes, e.g. 'radio-'active, 're'write, 'diso'bey.

3. [ '_' _ '_ ] and 4. ['_' _ '_ '_]. The accentual types are met in initial compound abbreviations like 'U'S'A, 'U'S'S'R.

5. ['_,___]. The type is realized both in simple and compound words, very

common among compound words, e.g. 'hair-,dresser, 'substructure.

6. [, _'___]. The accentual type marks a great number of simple words and some compound words as well. In simple words the stresses fall onto:

1. the prefix and the root: m aga'zine;

2. the root and the suffix: ,hospi'tality;

3. the prefix and the suffix: disorganization.

The other five types are rare and found in small number of words.

The data given above suggest an idea of the great variability in the accentual structure of English words. The most widely spread among the enumerated accentual types are supposed to be Type 1, Type 2, Type 5 and Type 6. Each type includes varieties of definite accentual structures with different numbers of syllables and marks thousands of words. So the four of them cover the main bulk of most common English words and are therefore most typical for the English vocabulary.

The variability of the word accentual structure is multiplied in connected speech. The accentual structure of words may be altered under the influence of rhythm, e.g. An 'unpolished 'stone but: The 'stone was un'polished.

The tempo of speech may influence the accentual pattern of words. With the quickening of the speed the carefulness of articulation is diminished, the vowels are reduced or elided, the secondary stress may be dropped, e.g. The 'whole organi'zation of the 'meeting was 'faulty.

23. Intonation and prosody: definition, approaches, functions, spheres of application.

Phonemes, syllables and words, as lower—level linguistic units, are grouped by various prosodic means into a higher unit — the utterance. Every concrete utterance, alongside of its phonemic and syllabic structures has a certain prosodic structure, or intonation.

Intonation is a complex unity of speech melody, sentence stress, tempo, rhythm and voice timbre, which enables the speaker to express his thoughts, emotions and attitudes to­wards the contents of the utterance and the hearer.

Acoustically, intonation is a complex combination of varying fundamental frequency, intensity and duration.

Speech melody is primarily related with fundamental frequency, tempo — with duration.

On the articulatory, or production, level intonation is also a complex phe­nomenon. In the production of speech melody certain (subglottal, laryngeal and supraglottal) respiratory muscles regulate the subglottal air—pressure, which makes the vocal cords vibrate. An increase of subglottal pressure raises the pitch of the voice, and its decrease lowers the pitch.

The definition of intonation given above is a broad definition. It reflects the actual interconnection and interaction of melody, stress, tempo, rhythm and timbre in speech.

A great number of phoneticians abroad, (including D.Jones, L.Armstrong and I.Ward, K.Pike, R.Kingdon, A.Gimson, J.O'Connor and G.Arnold) define intonation as the variation of the pitch of the voice, thus reducing it to one component — speech melody. This is a narrow approach to the definition of intonation.

Thus G.Arnold writes: "When we talk about English intonation we mean the pitch patterns of spoken English, the pitch tunes or melodies, the musical features of English ".

Some foreign phoneticians give broader definitions of intonation. Thus L. Hultzen includes the variations of pitch, loudness and duration, F.Danes — the variations of pitch and intensity, D.Crystal — tone, pitch range, loudness, with rhythmicality and tempo closely related.

Alongside of the term "intonation" the term "prosody" is widely used. "Prosody " and "prosodic" denote non—segmental phenomena, i.e. those which do not enter into the system of segmental phonemes. D. Crystal defines prosodic features as "vocal effects constituted by variations along the parameters of pitch, loudness, duration and silence".

From the definition of prosody and intonation we can clearly see that both the notions include essentially the same phenomena. But the terms "in­tonation" and "prosody" are used differently by different linguists.

Some phoneticians apply the term "prosody" and "prosodic" only to the features pertaining to the syllable and phonetic word, or rhythmic unit (which are regarded as meaningless prosodic units) and oppose prosody to intonation (which is a meaningful phenomenon).

We adhere to the point of view that prosodic features pertain not only to syllables, words and rhythmic units, but to the intonation group and the utterance as well, since the latter are constituted by these units.

The notion of prosody, consequently, is broader than the notion of into­nation as it can be applied to the utterance, the word, the syllable, whereas prosody of the utterance and intonation are equivalent notions.

Whatever the views on the linguistic nature of prosodic phenomena, the phonic substance of prosody is regarded by all phoneticians as the modifications of fundamental frequency, intensity and duration. The most complicated and unsolved problems of prosody are the interaction between its acoustic properties, their functioning in speech and their systematization. R.Jakobson says that prosody is one of the most difficult and controversial problems of modern linguistic studies.

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