There are basically two classifications of crimes. The first one is the classification by gravity and the other is by the object of crime.

Criminal law of most modern states classifies crimes by the object as:

- offences against the safety of the state (treason, sedition, rebellion, tax evasion, bribery, counterfeiting);

- offences against the public peace and order (rioting, drunk and dis­orderly conduct, carrying weapons, illegal speeding):

- offences against a person (homicide, assault, battery, mayhem, kid­napping, rape);

- offences against property (theft, larceny, robbery, burglary, hijack­ing loaded trucks, receiving stolen property, embezzlement);

- offences against consumers (fraudulent sale of wild cat securities);

- offences against decency (bigamy, obscenity, prostitution, sexual harassment);

- inchoate offences (aiding, abetting, incitement, conspiracy, attempt);

- offences concerned with obstructing justice (perjury, assisting of­fenders, concealing, contempt of court)

Not all crimes are viewed as equally serious by the law or by the public in general. Crimes, according to their gravity, are divided into felonies and misde­meanors. Felonies are the most serious types of crimes. Among the felonies rec­ognized by the Common law are homicide, arson, rape, robbery, burglary, larceny, kidnapping, drug dealing and others. The punishment for a felony is stiffer than it is for a misdemeanor. In many states, the punishment for a felony is imprisonment for at least one year or death in some limited case. Misdemeanors are less serious crimes. They include disorderly conduct, public drunkenness, minor driving viola­tions and so on. Persons found guilty are usually punished by fines or imprison­ment for no more than one year.

As for the classification of crime in Great Britain and Wales the Criminal Law Act 1967 introduced the concept of "arrestable"(indictable) and "non-arrestable"(summary) offences, thus abolishing the old distinction between felo­nies (serious crimes) and misdemeanors (minor offences).

An arrestable offence is one for which no specific arrest warrant is re­quired; a police officer can arrest without a magistrate's warrant for a suspected crime as is the case of murder, treason and piracy with vio­lence.

When an offence is non-arrestable, war­rants are issued when the defendant has failed to answer a summons and the magistrates think it essential that he should be present at a hearing. The summons must contain particulars of the alleged offence.

Task 2. Translate the marked paragraphs into Russian.

Task 3. Answer the questions to the text in written form:

1. What are the most common classifications of crimes?
2. What crimes are distinguished according to gravity?
3. What is the difference between felonies and misdemeanours?
4. What punishments are applied in case of felonies?
5. How are misdemeanours punished?
6. What classification of crimes is used in Great Britain?

Task 4. Open the brackets focusing on the use of tense forms in conditionals:

1. They would do it if they (can)

2. If she doesn’t come, I (not, invite) her ever again.

3. Would you have come if you (know) earlier about the meeting?

4. If he (buy) that car, he’ll be sorry.

5. She would be more careful if she (be) him.

6. I (not, go) to sleep over that book if it (not, be) so dull.

7. If I (know) you (come), I of course (stay) at home.

Task 5. Choose the proper modal verb from those in brackets, write the resulting sentence and translate it into Russian:

1. There’s plenty of time. You (don’t have to; mustn’t; needn’t) hurry.

2. It was a great party last night. You (must have; should have; had to) come. Why didn’t you?

3. The Ford theatre where Lincoln was shot (must restore; must be restoring; must have been restored; must restored).

4. If we (have to; must; should; are to) succeed, we need to change the structure of our company.

5. If a company’s name has been registered, no other company (must be incorporated; should become incorporated; need be incorporated; may incorporate) under that name.

6. If you have a credit card you (must not; do not have to; have not; might not) carry a lot of cash with you.

Task 6. Open the brackets using the required form of the Infinitive or Infinitive construction. Translate the sentences into Russian:

1. She'll be glad (promote) to this office. 2. I'm glad (see) Tom again last weekend. 3. He made us (wait) for hours. 4. I suspect (he, help) by accomplices. 5. I'd like (the report, prepare) by Saturday. 6. The committee is known (make) already the decision. 7. He is expected (sell) hisbusiness soon.

Task 7. Open the brackets using the gerund in the appropriate form. Translate the sentences into Russian:

1. The public image of the company is rather negative; it needs (improve). 2. The police officer (to give) the details of the incident solved the prob­lem. 3. She was very pleased at (choose) to represent the interests of the company. 4. I am tired of (ask) so many questions. 5. He died in hospital without (recover) consciousness.

Task 8. Open the brackets using the participle in the appropriate form. Translate the sentences into Russian:

1. (Know) that he was hard up I offered him a moonlighting. 2. With Joanna (study) at a college her mother had to find an employment. 3. (Complete) the project the team had a party at a restaurant. 4. I saw this man (drink) his coffee at the corner table. 5. (Summon) to jury service she had to change her plans for that week. 6. We want to have this room (redecorate) in two weeks.

TEST 3E

Task 1. Study the text.

TORT LAW

Tort Law is a specific sphere of law that covers noncriminal injury to people. Such injuries may be of different nature: injuries to people, injuries to their property or injuries to their reputation. The aim of the tort law is to provide relief for persons who have suffered harm from the wrongful acts of others.

The law of tortcoversa wide area of wrongdoings. Trespass, conversion, nuisance, negligence, misrepresentation, slander and libelare all torts.

Trespass is entering somebody's land or premises without the owner's permission.

Conversion in English law covers taking, destroying or selling someone else's property.

The tort of nuisanceis an act of causing trouble to other people. If you intend to do some improvements to your flat and use a power drill at night or during weekends you are causing trouble to other people.

Ninety percent of tort suits involve charges of negligenceor, in other words,breach of a legal duty of care.Duty of care is a principle that people’s duty is to do their best to avoid any possible harm to other people. So if somebody falls on wet flooring in a shop, the shop owner will be sued for negligence.

Misrepresentationis a false statement of fact. If you are buying a house and the owner assures you that it has brand new roofing, but it doesn’t, this is a tort of misrepresentation.

The tort of defamationcovers attacks against someone's reputation through the written or spoken word. There are two kinds of defamation: slander(spoken defamation) and libel(written defamation).

There is an area of tort law which mainly concerns business. This area includes product liability and strict liability torts. Product liability holds a company responsible for injuries caused by its product. Strict liability, or liability without fault, is a branch of torts regulating activities that are useful and necessary but that create abnormally dangerous risks to society.

The tort law also includes the so-called vicarious liability. Under this concept anyone may sue or be sued: a child, a mentally sick person or a deceased person. For example if a child playing football breaks your window, you may sue his parents. Another kind of vicarious liability is the liability of an employer for the tortuous actions in the course of doing his work. If somebody falls in a hole made in the course of road maintenance works, this person will sue the maintenance company. It didn’t instruct its personnel properly.

Task 2. Translate the marked paragraphs into Russian.

Task 3. Answer the questions to the text in written form:

1. What are the natures of noncriminal injuries?

2. What is the tort of negligence?

3. What is the duty of care?

4. What are the two kinds of defamation?

5. What is the essence of the product liability torts?

6. What is vicarious liability?

Task 4. Open the brackets focusing on the use of tense forms in conditional sentences:

1. If the dinner is not ready, I (go) without it.

2. I would have come yesterday if I (have) nothing to do.

3. If John (eat) another cake, he’ll be sick.

4. I wouldn’t do that if I (be) you.

5. If it (be) OK with you, let’s meet at six o’clock.

6. If we (take shelter) under these trees, we (not, get wet).

7. If anyone (say) such a thing to me, I (feel) hurt.

Task 5. Choose the proper modal verb from those in brackets, write the resulting sentence and translate it into Russian:

1. What was wrong with you? Why (had you to; did you have; must you) go to hospital?

2. I think all drivers (should wear; had better wear; are able to) seat belts.

3. This rule (doesn’t apply; is not apply; shall not be applied; must not have been applied) here. It’s an exception.

4. The company is considering whether any new products (need to be added; should be adding; need add; ought to add) to the line for sale in foreign countries.

5. Don’t contradict her. You (are to; have to; should) respect her old age.

6. If you have a high blood pressure, you (had better; are better; need better; may better) stop eating salt.

Task 6. Open the brackets using the required form of the Infinitive or Infinitive construction. Translate the sentences into Russian:

1. Please let me (know) your decision as soon as possible. 2. They're pleased (compensate) for the damage. 3. He tried to make me (believe) that he was not involved in the crime. 4. Do you want (they, stay) in the building during the break? 5. He expected (she, summon) to give evidence. 6. The criminals arethought (leave) the country some days ago. 7. He is said (interrogate) at the attorney’s office now.

Task 7. Open the brackets using the gerund in the appropriate form. Translate the sentences into Russian:

1. (to be as­sisted) by an experienced lawyer, she won the case. 2. The guilt is not evident, it needs (prove). 3. The man didn’t collect the parcel, in spite of (notify) three times. 4. I always treat people politely and I insist on (treat) politely. 5. He isn't used to (give) testimony in court.

Task 8. Open the brackets using the participle in the appropriate form. Translate the sentences into Russian:

1. (Invite) to the birthday party I went to choose a nice present. 2. I definitely saw Mr. Donovan (talk) to Mrs. Stevens at 7 a.m. yesterday. 3. With his car (repair) he had to get to work by train. 4. I want to have the complaint (file) the day before the hearing starts. 5. She noticed a (Frighten) look of his face. 6. (Have) plenty of time he decided to walk to the station.

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