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When the vehicle goes over a bump, the spring compresses and expands and will continue to compress and expand several times before returning to its original position. A similar action is seen when a rubber ball is dropped on the floor. This additional action is undesirable and results in an uncomfortable ride. To reduce this additional action shock absorbers are fastened between the axle and the frame. Most late-model shock absorbers consist of a telescoping tube partially filled with a fluid that can pass through a restricted passage from one part of the tube to the other. When the tube is compressed or expanded, the fluid causes a showing down action on the telescoping tube.

2. Complete the sentences with the active form of the verb in brackets:

a) Last summer some friends and I arranged to go camping. We ……… (to look forward) to going for weeks when finally the date of departure ……… (to come). We ……… (to load) the car with our luggage and ……… (to set off) early in the morning. The weather was perfect, the sun ……… (to shine) brightly and the wind ……… (to blow) gently. There ……… (not to be) a cloud in the sky. Shortly afterwards, while we ……… (to travel) along the motorway, we ……… (to notice) that the car ……… (to make) a strange noise. Peter, who ……… (to drive) very fast, suddenly …….. (to stop) the car. To our surprise the boot was wide open and all our things ……… (to fall out).

Text 15

THE BRAKES

When the brake pedal is pushed down, it forces oil (hydraulic fluid) through small pipes. These pipes lead to the brakes. A drum is fixed to each wheel. This goes round with the wheel. The fluid forces the brake shoe to rub against the drum.

There are also disc brakes. A metal disc is fixed to each wheel. The fluid forces a pad to rub against the disc. The friction between the brake shoe and the drum, or the pad and the disc, slows down the wheel.

Springs on the axles give a smooth movement to the car body. Two kinds of springs are used. They are leaf springs and coil springs. Leaf springs are unusually on back axles. Coil springs are on front axles.

Shock absorbers filled with oil also help. These go in and out telescopes.

SOME DIFFERENCES

Alternators: Many modern cars do not have a dynamo. They have an alternator. The alternator is usually in the same place as the dynamo. The fan belt turns the alternator. The flow of electricity from a dynamo is direct current (DC). From an alternator it is alternating current (AC). The alternating current is changed to direct current for the battery. The current from an alternator is very strong. Its flow to the battery is controlled by a regulator.

Diesel four-stroke cycle

Diesel engines: many lorries and some cars have diesel engines. The diesel engine has no carburetor and no electrical system to make a spark. It has no sparking plugs. One piston stroke sucks air only into the cylinder. The next stroke compresses the air in a small combustion chamber. The air is very hot. A drop of oil is forced into the chamber. It mixes with the hot air and burns. The energy released, forces the piston down. The next stroke is the exhaust stroke.

Front wheel drive: in some cars the engine turns the front wheels. Rear engine car: in some cars the engine is at the back (rear) of the car. Both cars have the usual transmission system. They have no long propeller shaft because the engine is close to the wheels.

1. Complete the sentences with the active form of the verb in brackets:

1. Bill was painting his front door when the telephone ……… (to start) ringing. He ……… (to answer) the phone and ……… (to speak) to his friend. Later he ……… (to notice) that he ……… (to leave) red fingerprints all over the phone.

2. Last Friday I ……… (to walk) to work when I ……… (to see) an old friend I ……… (not to see) for a long time. I ……… (throw) my arms around him. He ……… (to stare) at me with an open mouth. To my horror I ……… (to realize) I ……… (to mistake) him for my friend.

3. Fill in “since” or “for”.

Sue Wilson has been involved in sports … for … more than 25 years. Her first interest was gymnastics, which she has been actively involved in ……… she was ten, but she has also been interested in other forms of sport ……… many years. She has been a keen cyclist ……… 1980 when she made her first bicycle tour of Europe and ……… her marriage to all-round sportsman Tom Wilson in 1985, she has tried her hand at climbing, sailing and skydiving. Her talent as a writer has kept her busy ……… the past ten years and she has become familiar to TV viewers as a sports commentator ……… her first TV appearance in 1988. Her plans for the future? “I’ve been interested in the role of women in sports ever ……… I was a teenager. Now, after being so busy ……… all these years, I’ve decided to take some time off so I can write a book about it. “Since Sue has been part of the sporting world ……… so long, her book should be fascinating.

Text 16

1. Put the missing prepositions into the questions. Ask them your partner:

a) Do you often go ________ the speed limit?

b) When you see an amber light, do you step ________ the gas or the brakes?

c) Do you become very annoyed and angry when you are stuck ________ traffic?

d) Have you ever gone ________ a red light?

e) Do you always slow ________ for pedestrians?

f) Do you often honk your horn ________ other drivers?

g) Do you always look both ways before you turn ________ intersections?

h) Do you always remember to turn ________ your turn signal when you are making a turn?

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