ÒÎÐ 5 ñòàòåé: Ìåòîäè÷åñêèå ïîäõîäû ê àíàëèçó ôèíàíñîâîãî ñîñòîÿíèÿ ïðåäïðèÿòèÿ Ïðîáëåìà ïåðèîäèçàöèè ðóññêîé ëèòåðàòóðû ÕÕ âåêà. Êðàòêàÿ õàðàêòåðèñòèêà âòîðîé ïîëîâèíû ÕÕ âåêà Õàðàêòåðèñòèêà øëèôîâàëüíûõ êðóãîâ è åå ìàðêèðîâêà Ñëóæåáíûå ÷àñòè ðå÷è. Ïðåäëîã. Ñîþç. ×àñòèöû ÊÀÒÅÃÎÐÈÈ:
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Figures of substitutions
Figures of substitutions are units of secondary nomination which exist at the language and are formed on the basis of regular patterns. So secondary nomination units enter into paradigmatic relations with primary nomination units. Secondary nomination units are stylistically marked because they have additional stylistic meaning. That is, figures of substitution may be presented in the table: Figures of substitution
Figures of quality figures of qualification Hyperbola meiosis metaphoric metonimic metaphor metonymy Litotes personification synecdoche allegory periphases antonomasia euphemism
irony 2.1. Figures of quantity are based on comparison of 2 different objects having one common qualitative feature. This common feature characterizes one object in a greater degree (the case of hyperbola) or in a least degree (the cases of meiosis and litotes). Hyperbole has the function of intensifying one certain property of the object described. It can be defined as a deliberate overstatement or exaggeration of a feature essential (unlike periphrasis) to the object or phenomenon. In its extreme form this exaggeration is carried to an logical degree, sometimes an absurd. For example: “He was so tall that I was not sure he had a face.” (O. Henry) or “Those three words (Dombey and Son) conveyed the one idea of Mr. Dombey’s life. The earth was made for Dombey and Son to trade in and the sun and the moon were made to give them light. Rivers and seas were formed to float their ships; rainbows gave them promise of fair weather; winds blew for or against their enterprises; stars and planets circled in their orbits to preserve inviolate a system of which they were the center.” (Dickens). In order to depict the width of the river Dnieper Gogol uses the following hyperbole: “It’s a rare bird that can fly to the middle of the Dnieper.” Like many stylistic devices, hyperbole may lose its quality as a stylistic device through frequent repetition and become a unit of the language -as -a -system, reproduced in speech in its unuttered form. Here are some examples of language hyperbole: ‘A thousand pardons’, ‘scared to death’, ‘immensely obliged’, ‘I’d give the world to see him’. Byron says: “When people say “I’ve told you fifty times” They mean to scold, and very often do.” Meiosis is a figure opposite to hyperbola. It’s a deliberate underestimating of the features of the object with the aim to intensify the expressiveness of speech. The features are usually sizes, volume, distance, time. e.g. He left Ann without a penny. Âëåò³òè â êîﳺ÷êó.
Litotes (a variant of PERIPHRASIS) is a figure of speech which consists in the affirmation of the contrary by negation. Usually litotes presupposes double negation. One through a negative particle (no, not) the other - through a word with negative meaninig. Its function is to convey doubts of the speaker concerning the exact characteristics of the object or a feeling. e.g. It's not a bad thing - It's a good thing. e.g. He is no coward. He is a brave man. e.g. He was not without taste.
2.2. Figures of qualification are features based on comparison of features and qualities of two different objects having something in common. Metaphor. The SD based on the principle of identification of two objects is called a metaphor. The SD based on the principle of substitution of one object for another is called metonymy and SD based on contrary concepts is called irony. Metaphor is relation of logical and contextual meanings based on the resemblance of two objects, ideas, actions. Ex: She is a fox. Metaphors can be expressed by almost all parts of speech and functions in the sentence as any of its members. Ex: heart of stone (noun) the night swallowed him up (verb) the leaves fell sorrowfully (adverb) Metaphors expressed by one word is called simple. There are metaphors which are expressed by several words, a group of words, they are metaphorical periphrasis. Ex: Oh, let me true in love but truely and then believe me, my love is as fear as any mother’s child, though not so bright as those gold candles fixed in heaven’s air. A metaphor becomes a stylistic device when two different phenomena (things, events, ideas, actions) are simultaneously brought to mind by the imposition of some or all of the inherent properties of one object on the other which by nature is deprived of these properties. Such an imposition generally results when the creator of the metaphor finds in the two corresponding objects certain features, which to his eye have something in common. Metaphors, like all stylistic devices, can be classified according to their degree of unexpectedness. Thus metaphors, which are absolutely unexpected, i.e. are quite unpredictable, are called genuine metaphors. Those, which are commonly used in speech and therefore are sometimes even fixed in dictionaries as. Expressive means of language are trite metaphors, or dead metaphors. Their predictability therefore is apparent. Genuine metaphors are regarded as belonging to language-in-action, i.e. speech metaphors; trite metaphors belong to the language-as-a-system, i.e. language proper, and are usually fixed in dictionaries as units of the language. Ex: 1) Mrs. Small’s eyes boiled with excitement. 2) Denis did not dance, but then ragtime came squirting out of the pianola in jets of Bengal light, then things began to dance inside him. In trite metaphors one of the meaning is suppressed by the other. Trite metaphors played an important role in the development of the language, the words which acquire new meaning are fixed in dictionary. Ex: the salt of life, to burn with passion, to be in the same boat, foot of a bed, leg of a chair, head of a nail. The main stylistic function of metaphor is to create images. Metaphors can express not only one image, but several. Such metaphors are called sustained or prolonged. Ex: The tight little days turned. seven times times and clicked on tooth of the week, which in turn engaged the slow, constantly moving wheel of month. Metonymy is based on a different type of relation between the dictionary and contextual meanings, a relation based not on identification, but on some kind of association connecting the two concepts which these meanings represent. Metonynymy used in language-in-action, i.e. contextual metonymy, is genuine metonymy and reveals a quite unexpected substitution of one word for another, on the ground of some strong impression produced by a chance feature of the thing. Many attempts have been made to pinpoint the types of relation which metonymy is based on. Among them the following are most common. 1) A concrete thing used instead of an abstract notion. “The camp, the Bulpit and the Law For rich man’s sons are free.” 2) The container instead of the thing contained. The hall applauded, The cattle boiled. (instead of water). 3) The reqlation of proximity; as in; “The round game table was boisterous and happy”. 4) The material instead of the thing made of it; as in; “The marble spoke”. 5) The instrument which the doer uses in performing the action instead of the action or the doer himself; as the sword is the worst argument that can be used, so should it be last. 6) The name of the author for his work: I read Sheakespear. Looking up Denis saw two heads overtopping the hedge immediately above him. twoheads - men’s heads used instead of men themselves. Barbecue Smith was tossed on the floor. In this sentence the author of the book is used instead of the book. Metonymy like all SD s can be genuine and trite. Genuine metonymy reveals a quite unexpected substitution of one word for another or one concept for another. “Then they came in. Two of them, a man with long fair moustaches and a silent dark man... Definitely the moustache and I had nothing in common”. (D.Lessiv) Here we have a featire of a man which catches the eye, in this case his facial appearance: the moustach stand for the man himself. The function of the metonymy here is to indicate that the speaker knows nothing of the man in question, moreover there is a definite implication that this is the first time the speaker has seen him. Trite metonymies belong to EM of the language, they are widely used and therefore some of them are fixed in the dictionaries. Due to trite metonymy new meaning appear in the language. However, when such meanings are included in dictionaries, there is usually a label “fig”. (figurative use).This shows that the new meaning has not replaced the primary one, but, as it were, co-exists with it. Ex: a hand - as a worker (fixed metonymy) The stylistic function of metonymy is to create, imagery, to give sensual, visuable, more perceptable presentationof an idea. Hence nouns in metonymy are mostly used with the definite articles, or without it at all. Besides metonymy may have a characterizing function when it is used to make the character’s description significant or rather insignificant (by mentioning only his hat and collar). A metonymy differs from metaphor by the fact that a metaphor may be periphrased into a simile by the help of such words as: as if, to as, like etc. Irony is a stylistic device also based on the simultaneous realization of two logical meanings -dictionary and contextual, but the two meanings stand in opposition to each other. For example: “It must be delightful to find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in one’s pocket.” Irony must not be confused with humor, although they have very much in common. Humor always causes laughter. What is funny must come as a sudden clash of the positive and the negative. In this respect irony can be likened to humor. But the function of irony is not confined to producing a humorous effect.
Periphrasis is a device, which, according to Webster’s dictionary, denotes the use of a longer phrasing in place of a possible shorter and plainer form of expression. It is also called circumlocution due to the roud-about or indirect way used to name a familiar object or phenomenon. Viewed from the angle of it’s linguistic nature, perephrasis represent the renaming of an object and as such may be considered along with a more general group of word designations replasing the direct names of their denotata. One and the same object may be identified in different ways and accordingly acqure different appelations. Thus, in different situations a certain person can be denoted, for instance, as either ‘his benefactor’, or ‘this bore’or ‘the narrator’, or ‘the wretched witness’, etc. These names will be his only in a short fragment of the discourse, the criterion of their choice being furnished by the context. Such naming units may be called secondary, textually confined designations and are generally composed of a word-combination. This device has a long history. It was widely used in the Bible and in Homer’s Iliad. As a poetic device it was very popular in Latin poetry. Here are some examples of well-known dictionary periphrases(periphrastic synonyms); the cap and gown (students body);a gentlemen of the long robe (a lawyer); the fair sex (women); my better half (my wife). Stylistic periphrasis can also be devided into logical and figurative. Logical periphrasis is based in one of the inheren properties or perhaps a passing feature of the object described, as in instruments of destruction (Dickens) - ’pistols’; the most pardonable of human weaknesses..(Dickens) - ’love’ the object of his admiration (Dickens); that proportion of the population which...is yet able to read words of more than one syllable, and to read them without perceptible movement of the lips - ’half-literate’. Figurative periphrasis is based either on metaphor or on metonymy, the key-word of the collocation being the word used figuratively, as in ‘the punctual servant of all work ‘(Dickens)’ the sun’; ’in disgrase with fortune and men’s eyes’ (Sheakspeare) - ’in misfortune’; ‘to tie the knot= to marry’. There is little difference between metaphor or metonymy, on the one hand, and figurative periphrasis, on the other. It is the structural aspect of the periphrasis, which always presupposes a word-combination, that is the division. Euphemism is a word or phrase used to replace an unpleasant word or expression by a conventionally more acceptable one, for example, the word ‘to die‘ has bred the following euphemisms: to pass away, to expire, to be no more, to kick the bucket, to give up the ghost, to go to west. So euphenisms are synonyms, which aim at producting a deliberately mild effect.
3. Figures of combination Figures of combination are stylistic devices based on combining in syntagmatic sequence meanings of the language units of one level within the limits of another higher level. In stylistic devices different meanings are combined. The realisation of figures of combination is possible in a certain context. There are three types of relations of the meaning of lexical units: 3. relation of similar meaning of lexical units (figures of identity) 4. relations of opposite meaning of lexical units (figures of opposition) 5. relations of different meaning of lexical units (figures of inequality) figures of combination
figures of identityfigures of oppositionfigures of inequality simile antithesis climax synonyms-substitutes oxymoron anticlimax synonyms-specifiers pun, zeugma
Simile. The intensification of some one feature of the consept in question is realized ina device called simile. “Ordinary comparison and simile must not be confused. They represent two devices processes. Comparison means weighing two objects belonging to one class of things with the purpose of establishing the degree of their sameness or difference. To use a simile is to characterize one object by brinining it into contact with another object belonging to an entirely different class of thing. Comparison takes into consideration all the properties of the two objects, stressing the one that is compared. Simile excludes all the properties of the two objects except one, which is made common to them. For example, ’The boy seems to be as clever as his mother’s ordinary comparison. ‘Boy’ and ‘mother’ belongs to the same class of objects - human beings - so this is not a simile but ordinary comparison. Similes have formal elements in their structure: connective words such as like as, such as, as if, seem. Here are some examples of similes taken from various sources and illustrating the variety of structural designs of this stylistic device. “His mind was restless, but it worked perversely and thoughts jerked through his brain like the misfiring of a defective carburettor “(Maugham) Sometimes the simile forming like is placed at the end of the phrase almost merging with it and becoming half-suffix, for example: “Emily Barton was very pink very Dresden-china shepherdess like.” In simple non-figurative language, it will assume the following form: “Emily Barton was very pink and looked like a Dresden -china-shepherdess.” Simile may suggest analogies in the character of actions performed. In this case the two members of structural design of the simile will resemble each other through the actions they perform. Thus: “The Liberals have plunged for entry without considering its effect, while the Labour liders like cautious bathers have put a timor- ous toe into the water and promtly withdrawn it.” The simile in this passage from a newspaper article ‘like cautious bathers’ is based on the simultaneous realization of the two meanings of the word plunge. The primary meaning ‘to throw oneself into the water’-prompted the figurative periphrasis ‘have put a timorous toe into the water and promptly withdrawn it’ standing for ‘have abstained from taking action.’ In the English language there is long list of hackneyed similes pointing out the analogy between the various qualities, states or actions of a quality, etc., for example: Treacherous as a snake, sly as fox, busy as a bee, industrious as an ant, blint as a bat, faithful as a dog, to work as a horse, to led like a sheep, to fly like a bird, to swim like a duck, stubborn as a mule, hungry as a bear, thirsty as a camel, to act like a puppy, playful as a kitten, vain (prod) as a peacock, slow as a tortoise and many others of the same type. These combinations, however, have ceased to be genuine similes and have become clichés in which the second component has become merely an adverbial intensifier. Its logical meaning is only vaguely perceived. From the point of view of the content trite simple can be classified into the following: 1. Simile describing the appearance of a person fat as a pig, fare as a lily. 2. Simile describing the features of the character industrious as an ant, faithful as a dog. 3. Simile describing the actions:busy as a bea, fleet as a dear, slow as a tortoise. 4. Simile describing the inner state feel like a fish out of water, blush as a sin, blush like rose. The stylistic function of simile may be different: 1. to produce a humorous effect by its unexppectedness, hairless as a boiled onion. 2. imaginatine characterisation of a phenomenon.
Antithesis. In order to characterize a thing or phenomena from a specific point of view, it may be necessary not to find points of resemblance or association between it and some other thing or phenomenon, but to find points of sharp contrast, that is, to set one against the other, for example: “A saint abroad, and a devil at home.” (Bunyan) “Better to reign in hell than serve in heaven.” (Milton) These contrasting features are represented in pairs of words, which we call antonyms, provided that all the properties of the two objects in question may be set one against another, as ‘saint’- ‘devil’, ‘reign’- ‘serve’, ‘hell’- ‘heaven’. Many word -combinations are built up by means of contrasting pairs, as lip and down, inside and out, from top to bottom and the like. Stylistic opposition, which is given a special name, the term antithesis, is of a different linguistic nature: it is based on relative opposition which arises out of the context through the expansion of objectively contrasting pairs, as in: “Youth is lovely, age is lonely, Youth is fiery, age is frosty.” (Longfellow) It must be remembered, however, that so strong is the impact of the various stylistic devices, that they draw into their orbit stylistic elements not specified as integral parts of the device. As we have pointed out, this often the case with the epithet. The same concerns antithesis. Sometimes it is difficult to single out the elements, which distinguish it from logical opposition. Thus in Dickens’ “A Tale of Two Cities” the first paragraph is practically built on opposing pairs. “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, and it was the epoch of bell” This device is often signaled by the introductory connective but as in: “The cold in clime are cold in blood Their love can scarce deserve the name But mine was like a lava flood That boils in Etna’s breast of flame.” (Byron)
Oxymoron is a combination of two words (mostly an adjective and a noun or an adverb with an adjective) in which the meaning of the two clash, being opposite in sense, for example: ‘low skyscraper’, ’sweet sorrow’, ’nice rascal ‘, ‘pleasantly ugly face’, ’horribly beautiful ‘, ’a deafening silence’. In the primary meaning of the qualifying word changes or weakens, the stylistic effect of oxymoron is lost. This is the case with what were once oxymoronic combinations, for example, ’awfully nice’, ’awfully glad’, ’terribly sorry’ and the like, where the words awfully and terribly have lost their primary logical meaning and are now used with emotive meaning only, as intensifiers. The essence of oxymoron consist in the capacity of the primary meaning of the adjective or adverbs to resist for some time the overwhelming of semantic change, which words undergo in combinations. “I, despise its very vatness and power. It has the poorest millionaires, the littlest great men, the haughtiest beggars, the plainest beauties, the lowest skyscrapers, the dolefulest pleasures of any town I ever saw.”(O.Henry) Oxymoron has one main structural model: adjective+noun. It is in this structural model that the resistance of the two component parts to fusion into one unit manifests itself most strongly. In the adverb +adjective model the change of meaning in the first element,the adverb, is more rapid, resistance to the unifying process not being so strong.
Zeugma is the realization of two meanings with the help of a verb, which is made to refer to different subjects or objects (direct or indirect). Zeugmais the use of a word in the same grammatical but different semantic relations to two adjacent words in the context, the semantic relations being on the one hand literal, and on the other, transferred. e. g. Dora, plunging at once into privileged intimacy and into the middle of the room. Zeugma is a strong and effective device to maintain the purity of the primary meaning when two meanings clash. There are two types of zeugma. 1) Zeugma based on interaction of independent and connected meaning of the word. Ex: He paid him a visit and a fee. He took his hat and his leave. 2) Zeugma based on interaction of primary and secondary meaning of the word. Ex: Oh man with sister dear! Oh man with mothers and wives? Ex: It is not linen you are wearing out But human creature lives íå áåëüå êîòîðîå âû èçíàøèâàåòå wear out linen - is used in primary meaning, wear out lives - the secondary meaning. Zeugma is expressed by verb+noun, adj+noun. Ex: Klara was not a narrow woman either in mind or body. Dora, plunging at once into privileged intimacy and into the middle of the room. to plunge (into the middle of a room) materializes the meaning to rush into or enterimpetuously. Here it is used in its concrete, primary, literary meaning: in “to plunge into privileged intimacy, plung is used in its derivative meaning. She lost her purse, head and reputation. Here the word “lost” has the same grammatical relation but the semantic relations are different, to loose a head or reputation that is logical connected meaning. Pun is another SD based on the interaction of two well-known meanings of a word or a phrase. There need not necessity be a word in the sentence to which the pun word refers. It depends on a context. The title of one of Oscar Wilde’s plays “The Importance of Being Earnest” has a pun in it in as much as the name of the hero and the adjective meaning “seriously-minded” are both present in our mind. The Stylistic function of these devices is to produce a humorous effect. Puns are used in riddles and jokes, for example: What is the difference between a schoolmaster and an engine - driver? (One trains the mind and the other minds the train). Climax (Gradation) is an arrangement of sentences (or of the homogeneous parts of one sentence) which secures a gradual increase in significance, importance, or emotional tension in the utterance, as in: “It was a lovely city, a beautiful city, a fair city, a veritable gem of a city.” or in: “Ne barrier wall, ne river deep and wide, Ne horrid crags, nor mountains dark and tall Rise like the rocks that Hispania’s land from Gaul.” (Bayron) Gradual increase in emotional evaluation in the first illustration and in significance in the second is realized by the distribution of the corresponding lexical items. The words ‘lovely’, ‘beautiful’, ‘fair’, ‘veritable gem’ in the first example and the relative inaccessibility of the barriers ‘wall’, ‘river’, ‘crags’, ‘mountains’ together with the epithets ‘deep and wide’, ‘horrid’, ‘dark and tall’ that make us feel the increase inimportance of each. Logical climax is based on the relative importance of the component parts looked at from the point of view of the concepts embodied in them. Emotional climax is based on the relative emotional tension produced by words with emotive meaning, as in the first example with the words ‘lovely’, ‘beautiful’, ‘fair’. Of course, emotional climax based on synonymous strings of words with emotive meaning will inevitably cause certain semantic differences in these words- such is the linguistic nature of stylistic synonyms-, but emotive meaning will be the prevailing one. Emotional climax is mainly found in sentences, more rarely in longer syntactical units. This is natural. Emotional charge cannot hold long. What are the indespensable constituents of climax? They are: a) the distributional constituent: close proximity of the component parts arranged in increasing order of importance or significance; b) the syntactical pattern: parallel constructions with possible lexical repetition; c) the connotative constituent: the explanatory context, which helps the reader to grasp the gradation, as no... ever once in all his life, nobody ever, nobody. No beggars (Dickens); deep and wide, horrid, dark and tall (Byron); veritable (gem of a city). Climax, like many other stylistic devices, is a means by which the author discloses his world outlook, his evaluation of objective facts and phenomena.
4.Phonetic stylistic devices Phonetic stylistic devices are some specific sound-combination in their syntagmatic succession. There are 3 main devices of sound-arrangement in English: alliteration assonance onomatopoeia Alliteration is a figure of speech which consists in the repetition of the same sound in words in close succession (usually in the stressed syllables): *(the, the, the) Alliteration is a phonetic stylistic device which aims at imparting a melodic effect to the utterance. The essence of this device lies in the repetition of similar sounds, in particular consonant sounds, in close succession, particularly at the beginning of successive words: " The possessive instinct never stands still (J. Galsworthy) or, "Deep into the darkness peering, long I stood there wondering, fearing, doubting, dreaming dreams no mortals ever dared to dream before" (E. A. Poe). Alliteration, like most phonetic expressive means, does not bear any lexical or other meaning unless we agree that a sound meaning exists as such. But even so we may not be able to specify clearly the character of this meaning, and the term will merely suggest that a certain amount of information is contained in the repetition of sounds, as is the case with the repetition of lexical units.
Assonance is a repetition of the same sound - a university should be a place of light, of liberty, and of learning – they produce effect of euphony
Onomatopoeia is a combination of speech sounds which aim at imitation sounds produced in nature, sounds produced by things, people and animals. e.g. buzz, burble, mew Íå íàøëè, ÷òî èñêàëè? Âîñïîëüçóéòåñü ïîèñêîì:
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