General characteristics of figures of combination as stylistic devices of semasiology.

Semasiological SD are figures of combination = stylistically relevant semantic means of combining lexical, syntactical and other units (including EM) belonging to the same or different language units.

32. Figures of quality: general characteristics.

Tropes and figures of speech based on comparison of features and qualities of 2 objects belonging to dif. Areas or classes, which are perceived as having a common feature. +29

33. Figures of quantity: hyperbole, meiosis.

hyperbole- is a deliberate exaggeration which is aimed at intensification one of the features of an object to such extent that will show its absurdity.Mainly used to intensify physical qualities of objects or people(Her family is one aunt about a th. Years old).May show the overflow of emotions. Meiosis-is the figure of speech, contrary to hyperbole, consists in lessening, reducing the real quantity of the object of speech. Mainly used in oral speech where it usually emphasizes the insignificance of an object.(She wore a pink hat the size of a button)

34. Figures of equivalence: simile-is a stylistic device based on partial identification of two unlike objects. Stucture: tenor, vehicle, ground for comparison.Comparison markers: conjunctions and prepositions(like,as),verbs(seem,like), nouns(a sort of,some kind of)adjectives(the same as, similar to). Types: based on analogy, on a parable, based on contrast. Substituting - synonyms – substitutes (‘replacers’) are words used to denote object or thing, supplementing new additional details(to be so trembly and shaky from head to foot.)Specifying synonyms -Synonyms-specifires clarifying synonyms) – a chain of words which express similar meaning.(Joe was a mild, good-natured, sweet-tempered, easy-going, foolish dear fellow)

35. Figures of non-equivalence: based on actualization the emotional power of the utterance:climax- consists in arranging the utterance so that each consequent component of it increases significance, importance or emotional tension of narration, anticlimax- consists in arranging the utterance so that each subsequent component of it decreases significance, importance or emotional tension of narration. (Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested);based on two different meanings of words and word-combinations: pun- is a device based on polysemy, homonymy, or phonetic similarity to achieve a humorous effect(Money doesn't grow on the trees. But it blossoms at our branches), zeugma- parallel constructions with unparallel meanings(At noon Mrs. Turpin would get out of bed and humor).

36. Metaphorical group. Mechanism of metaphoric transfer of name. Types of metaphor. / Metaphorical group:metaphor-asecondary nomination unit based on likeness; similarity-, antonomasia-the use of the name of a historical, mythological, or biblical personage applied to a person whose characteristic features resemble those,personification-is attributing human properties to lifeless objects; allegory-means expressing abstract ideas through concrete pictures, epithet- is based on the interplay of emotive and logical meaning in an attributive word, phrase, sentence, used to characterize an object. Structural types of metaphor: simple (elementary)(But nothing happened. He was stalemated; and he was burning up with marble fever);Prolonged. Semantic types of m.: Trite (, dead) (flight of fancy; floods of tears, generation of efforts, to fly into passion).Genuine (Through the open window the dust danced and was golden.)

37. Metonymical group. Syntactic and semantic difference between metonymy and metaphor. Metonymical group: metonymy-based on the real association of the object of nomination(There are a lot of good heads in the university), synecdoche-the transfer is based on the ass. between a part and a whole, periphrasis(He’s got five mouths to feed), euphemism- used to replace an unpleasant word(merry (drunk); to possess a vivid imagination (to lie).Metonymy is more often found in subject and object groups, while metaphor is commonly found in predicate groups. When metaphor is used as a subject, it takes on an anaphoric pronoun(He is a bear. A bear broke the vase.)Metaphor is based on similarity, metonymy on contiguity(сходство, близость)

38. Figures of opposition: antithesis- denotes any active confrontation, emphasized co-occurrence of notions, really or presumably contrastive (it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness), oxymoron-a combination of words with contrasting meanings which results in the creation of a new notion(the lowest skyscrapers, a damned saint, a plain beauty).

39. Irony. Context types of irony.

Irony is the use of a word having a positive meaning to express a negative one. It must be delightful to find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in one’s pocket.

In contrast with metaphor and metonymy, irony does not employ any particular syntactical structure or lexical units. In context, there are usually some formal markers of irony pointing out the meaning implied.

In oral speech, a word used ironically is strongly marked by intonation and other paralinguistic means. In written speech, such markers are not easily found.

Language irony comprises words, word-combinations and utterances which, due to regular usage, have acquired connotative ironical meaning which does not depend on context, e.g. a speechmaker, too clever by half.

More often, however, words or word-combinations acquire ironical meaning due to particular syntagmatic relations between the meaning of different speech units in macrocontext (a fragment of a text) or megacontext (the whole text), e.g. An Ideal Husband, A Devoted Friend. The ironical meaning appears, when lexical units expressing positive evaluation in a certain context acquire a negative meaning, e.g. This naturally led to some pleasant chat about…fevers, chills, lung deseases…and bronchitis.

40. The problem of functional style in English.

Stylistics regards a language as a certain functional system.

English is represented by functional and non-functional variants of language.

Function is defined either as a relation of one element to another or as a role (‘ призначення’) of an element in a system as well a role of the whole system in wider environment.

· As in modern linguistics 3 areas of language are distinguished, namely, language system (langue), speech activity (performance) and speech material/ speech (parole), the notion of function has certain peculiarities applied to each of these areas.

· Understanding of style is different too as applied to language, speech activity and speech. Accordingly, three types of stylistics may be distinguished: stylistics of language, stylistics of activity, stylistics of speech.

The notion of functional style is interpreted in stylistics differently. There are 2 main approaches to its definition, both originating from Ac. V.V.Vinogradov’s conception. According to the first approach, style is defined on the criterion of function as a socially accepted, functionally conditioned and internally organized system of the ways of usage, choice and combination of communicative verbal means which correlate with other similar systems serving other aims and fulfilling other functions in speech practice of a nation. According to the second approach, style is defined with regard to its components. It is regarded as a system of language means united by the similarity of their function or by sphere of usage.

· Prof. Arnold I. V. – FSs are subsystems of language which possess their specific peculiarities in vocabulary, phraseology, syntactical constructions and sometimes phonetics.

· Prof. Galperin I. R. – FS of language is a system of interrelated language means which serve a definite aim in communication. A FS is thus to be regarded as the product of a certain concrete task set by the sender of the message.

· Prof. Screbnev Y. M. considers that FSs are descriptive features of subsystems of language which serve different spheres of communication. FS is construed with the help of specific constituents of these or those sublanguages.

41. Functional and non-functional variants of the English language.

English is represented by functional and non-functional variants of language. Non-functional variants of English are conditioned not by pragmatic aims or role relations of speakers but exceptionally by the sphere of the language use:

· territorial (local dialects – London Cockney, the Southern dialect in the USA);

· social and professional (social and professional jargons – teenagers’ / students’ jargon, jargon of sportsmen / criminals / drug addicts, etc.

Functional variants of English or FSs are conditioned by pragmatic aims and social relations of speakers.

· Aim is a conceivable desirable practical result of human activity. There are two types of hierarchically related aims: the main aim and the supplementary (intermediate) one.

· The main aim of verbal communication is of pragmatic (nonlingual) character. It presupposes not just conveying information but achieving some pragmatic aim (aim in a concrete speech situation).

· The supplementary aim is of constructive (lingual) character. It presupposes creating and applying definite means to achieve the main aim.

Non-functional aspects of speech

· territorial

· social

· professional

(dialects and jargons)

Functional aspects of speech

· are determined by functions (roles) linguistic units play in speech;

· make up functional styles;

· One and the same thought can be rendered by different linguistic means.

Functional types of language constitute the basis for the stylistic differentiation of speech activity and speech which serve the ground for defining functional style.

42. The notion of functional style.

The notion of functional style is interpreted in stylistics differently. There are 2 main approaches to its definition, both originating from Ac. V.V.Vinogradov’s conception. According to the first approach, style is defined on the criterion of function as a socially accepted, functionally conditioned and internally organized system of the ways of usage, choice and combination of communicative verbal means which correlate with other similar systems serving other aims and fulfilling other functions in speech practice of a nation. According to the second approach, style is defined with regard to its components. It is regarded as a system of language means united by the similarity of their function or by sphere of usage.

· Prof. Arnold I. V. – FSs are subsystems of language which possess their specific peculiarities in vocabulary, phraseology, syntactical constructions and sometimes phonetics.

· Prof. Galperin I. R. – FS of language is a system of interrelated language means which serve a definite aim in communication. A FS is thus to be regarded as the product of a certain concrete task set by the sender of the message.

· Prof. Screbnev Y. M. considers that FSs are descriptive features of subsystems of language which serve different spheres of communication. FS is construed with the help of specific constituents of these or those sublanguages.

Quite different interpretation of FS was suggested by Prof. Morokhovsky O. M. and his followers who regarded FS as the property of stylistics of speech activity.

· The speech functional style is defined as a socially accepted stereotype of speech behaviour conditioned by social situation of communication (formal or informal), social roles of communicants (equal or unequal; a parent and a child, a teacher and a student, a scientist, a journalist and the audience) and their pragmatic aims.

43. Deductive classification of functional style.

Thedeductive approach is based on the classification criteria which are regarded as given but not directly extracted from the speech material. According to this approach functional styles are classified on the basis of the language function, the sphere of usage and the set of differential signs.

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