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PART 2. TEXTS FOR TRANSLATION

History

Origin of the forgotten empire

The city of Vijayanagar is, as already stated, generally supposed to have been founded in the year 1336, and that the date is not far from the truth may be gathered from two facts. Firstly, there is extant an inscription of the earliest real king, Harihara I or Hariyappa, the «Haralb» of Ibn Batuta, dated in A.D. 1340. Secondly, the account given by that writer of a rapid southwards by Muhammad Taghlag tallies at almost points with the story given at the beginning of the Chronicle of Nuniz, and this raid took place in 1334.

For if a comparison is made between the narrative of Batuta and the traditional account given by Nuniz as to the events that preceded and led to the foundation of Vijayanagar, little doubt will remain in the mind that both relate to the same event. According to Ibn Batuta, Sultan Muhammad marched southwards against his rebel nephew, Baha-ud-din Gushtasp, who had fled to the protection of the «Rai of Kambila», or «Kampila» as Firishtah calls the place, in his stronghold amongst the mountains. The title «Rai» unmistakably points to the Kanarese country, where the form «Raya» is used for «Rajah», while in «Kambila» we recognize the old town of Kampli, a fortified place about eight miles east of Anegundi, which was the citadel of the predecessors of the kings of Vijayanagar. Though not itself actually «amongst the mountains», Kampli is backed by the mass of rocky hills in the centre of which the great city was afterwards situated. It is highly natural to suppose that the «Rai», when attacked by the Sultan would have quitted Kampli and taken refuge in the fortified heights of Anegundi, where he could defend himself with far greater chance of success than at the former place and this would account for the difference in the names given by the two chroniclers. Ibn Batuta goes on to say that the Raya sent his guest safely away to a neighboring chief, probably the Hoysala Ballala, king of Dvarasamudra in Maisur, then residing at Tanur. He caused a huge fire to be lit on which his wives and the wives of his nobles, ministers, and principal men immolated themselves, and this done he sallied forth with his followers to meet the invaders, and was slain. The town was taken, «and eleven sons of the Rai were made prisoners and carried to the Sultan, who made them all Musclemen». After the fall of the place the Sultan «treated the king's sons with great honour, as much for their illustrious birth as for his admiration of the conduct of their father», and Batuta adds that he himself became intimately acquainted with one of these – «we were companions and friends».

History: after the Russian conquest (Part I)

The concessions accorded in Russia to the Jewish traders from Bukhara helped to disseminate the notion that the situation of the Jews in the Russian Empire was good, and when Russia conquered Central Asia in 1864-1888 the Jews welcomed the Russians and even aided them, for example in the conquest of Samarkand (1868). According to the 1868 peace treaty, Bukhara, which had been decisively defeated, became a vassal of Russia and other parts of its territories, including Samarkand and several other towns with a Jewish population, were incorporated into the region (kray) of Turkistan, which was annexed directly to the Russian Empire. In the first few years, the Russians took several measures to gain the allegiance of Central Asian Jewry, which they regarded as the only loyal element within the native population.

The regime did not restrict Jewish autonomy, and only added to the communal structure the office of official rabbi (kazyonny ravvin), whose functions were similar to those of the official rabbis in other areas of the Russian Empire. The Russian-Bukharan peace treaty included three paragraphs that defined the rights of the Jews of Bukhara to live freely in Russia, to trade freely there, and to purchase real estate within its borders. In 1866 and 1872 it was decreed that the Jews of Bukhara and two other states in Central Asia, Khiva and Khuqand, or, in the Russian pronunciation Kokand (in the former, which became a Russian vassal in 1873, there were, in effect, no Jews, while the latter was abolished in 1876 and its territory annexed directly to Russia) would be granted Russian citizenship even if they resided in these countries, on condition that they join the trade guilds in Russia (thus exempting them from the law that denied Russian citizenship to «alien» Jews).

This policy aided Bukharan Jewry in acquiring a powerful status in trade relations, both with Central Asia and in trade with central Russia. Bukharan Jews established trading companies which opened branches in the large Russian cities as well as factories for the initial processing of local products, especially cotton and silk (the most known of them – the Potilahov and the Dividov companies). The local Jewish trader and industrialist, familiar with local conditions, had the advantage in competition with his Russian counterpart who was new to the area.

At the same time the Emir of Bukhara and his government attempted to make of the Jews that remained within the borders of the kingdom scapegoats for Iheir defeat, persecuting them and extorting money from them. These decrees resulted in the mass emigration of Jews from Bukhara to Turkistan. The Jewish population increased greatly in Samarkand, Tashkent and other cities. Fierce competition between the local Jewish tradesmen and industrialists and their Russian rivals and the movement of Jews from Bukhara to Turkistan were the main causes for the imposition of discriminatory measures against the Jews of Central Asia as early as the 1880s. In secret government circulars these measures were explained unequivocably as necessary to protect the Russian traders and industrialists and to limit the number of «native» Jews in the Turkistan region.

History: after the Russian conquest (Part II)

In the year when the Russian conquest of Central Asia was completed (1888), the Russian authorities decreed the expulsion of the Jews from all the towns of the Trans-Caspian kray, which covered approximately the territory of the former Turkman Soviet Republic. However, implementation was postponed indefinitely for fear of damaging the interests of the Russian traders engaged in trade with the local Jews. At the same time a decree was issued (but in a short period of time suspended) closing the synagogues in Merv. In 1887-1889 new regulations were issued that divided the Bukharan Jews who lived in the Turkistan kray, into two categories: «native Jews of the Turkistan kray», i.e., the Jews who had lived in what was now the kray before the conquest and their direct descendants, and those who could not prove that they or their ancestors were natives of the kray.

The possibility of obtaining Russian citizenship, accorded in regulations between 1866 and 1872, remained merely theoretical and its realization became very difficult. In 1892 the general governor of the Turkistan region issued a secret circular severely restricting the entry into the region of Jews residing within the boundaries of Bukhara. Czar Nicholas II himself added a note to the protocol of the government session held on November 20, 1898, defining the policy of the regime in Central Asia towards the Jews as follows:

To protect the General Governorship (region) of Turkistan and the General Governorship of the Steppes (i.e., the Kazak and Kirgiz areas conquered by Russia in the second half of the 19th century) from the harmful activities of the Jews, so long as this is possible.

However, already in 1900 it was evident that it would not be possible to implement the proscription. The authorities were confronted by the mutual responsibility of the members of the community, who protected the «aliens» in their midst and covered up for them, thus preventing the attempt to banish individuals, and even groups of Jews. The Jews were also aided by the lack of organization and the confusion in the Russian administration of the region. Moreover, the lower echelons of officialdom, whose task was to carry out these orders, often accepted bribes and ignored the presence of the «aliens». Implementation of the decree was thus postponed first till 1909 and then till 1910, and in the meantime, the chief rabbi of Turkistan, R. Salomon Tajer, intervened in this matter.

He appealed to the government, using the assistance of advocates who were well-versed in the law and wealthy Bukharan traders, and thus the town Khuqand, Marghelan, and Samarkand were added to the list of places where residence was permitted. In 1910 the committee of Count Pahlen, entrusted with the task of examining the situation in the Turkistan region, recommended that additional decrees be issued against the Jews residing there. One of the high officials of the local regime announced publicly in that same year that the Jews are «robbers of the people» and «counterfeiters of documents».

With the outbreak of World War I, there was a violent upheaval within the Muslim population of Central Asia, that in 1916 became an open revolt which the Czarist army managed to subdue only with great difficulty. The Jewish problem thus lost some of its urgency. But even during the course of World War I, as is attested in secret documents of the period, the rulers continued to formulate decrees directed against the Jews.

The Russian conquest aided in the establishment of a stratum of tradesmen and industrialists within Bukharan Jewry that was limited in number but had significant economic power and ability to compete. Nevertheless, the new conditions brought about the impoverishment of the masses of Bukharan Jewry since the importation of the cotton and silk cloths that were produced in Russian industrial enterprises resulted in the elimination of the major occupation of the Jews of Bukhara – the dyeing of cloths. The impoverished craftsmen turned to other professions. Thus, by the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century, hairdressing and shoe-shining and repairing became the almost exclusive monopoly of the Jews in Central Asia; many of them also became petty traders.

The advent of the Russian regime brought changes also in the field of education. Alongside the khomlo (heder), schools were established that taught some basic principles of secular culture. The teachers were mostly Bukharan Jews who had been educated in Jerusalem, where a Bukharan community had been established. In addition secular schools supported by the regime were established «Russian – native Jewish schools», in which the language of instruction was Russian. The first periodical in the language of the Bukharan Jews, entitled Rahamim, began to appear in 1910 in the town of Skobelev (now Ferghana) and continued to be published until 1916.

Ancient Russia

People exist at certain geographical location at some historical period; as time passed by areas of human distribution and borders of states changed. Both ethnic groups and states are not eternal: they are born and perish, develop and transform in new social communities. So Russian, Ukrainian and Byelorussian people were formed on the basis of eastern Slavonic superethnic group.

Formation of people (process of ethnogeny) and formation of states have economic base closely connected with inhabitancy of people and their way of life which in its turn influenced cultural and community features of ethnic groups. Natural cradle of eastern Slavic people of the Russian state was Eastern European plain. Its open spaces, landscapes, soil and climatic conditions, river basins determined not only the formation of dominant economic and cultural complexes, population settlements but also the formation of ethnic and state frontiers according to results of armed political conflicts and colonization processes. To the middle of the first millenium A.D. there were steady economic and cultural complexes located in woods, forest-steppes and steppe zones of Eurasia; the process of ethnogeny developed actively. To VI – VII centuries the final stage of eastern slavs allocation from common pro-Slavonic unity began. The transformation of eastern Slavic cultural and ethnic community into local independent civilization was connected with the adoption of Christianity by prince Vladimir in 988.

With adoption of Christianity eastern Slavs entered Orthodox Church which determined development of the Russian state. Transformation of Kiev into the political, cultural and religious centre of eastern Slavic state resulted in gradual strengthening of cultural delimitation of the Kiev Russia relative the west Slavic neighbours who adopted Christianity from Rome. Epoch of the Kiev Russia was the period of mainly southern orientation of eastern Slavic life. Russia was close to Byzantium because of religious and trade communications, to Bulgaria – because of common script.

The form of government of the Ancient Russian state included three components – veche as a special form of national assembly which discussed the most important questions; royal authority with administrative, judicial and military powers; royal council which was the assembly of supreme administration representatives. The state was multinational from its formation. On the territory of Ancient Russia lived Finno-Ugric people – Karelians, Veps, Saams. The Perm land occupied by Komi was joined at the end of XV century.

Christianization of Russia

A lot of time passed between Vladimir's christening and the Christianization of Russia. In 990 the first attempts to introduce a new faith were taken. It was met with great resistance on the part of the pagans.

Kiev was the first to become christened. The building of churches began. In Novgorod Vladimir entrusted the mission to the care of his uncle Dobrynya. But the townsmen destroyed his yard and killed his relatives. Nevertheless the revolt was suppressed. The Byzantine Empire assisted Russia in every way – e.g. in transporting books, which were carefully translated.

It took several centuries to strengthen Christianity, but the influence of paganism did not weakened. So that was the time for two religious beliefs. On the one hand people prayed in church, but on the other hand they went on celebrating pagan holidays. Thus the holiday of Kolyada (carol-singing) merged with Christmas and Shrovetide with Lent.

− The Church got lands at its disposal. As for monasteries they adhered to celibacy and withdrawal from all carnal and mundane pleasures. Father Superior was at the head of the monastery. In the course of time monasteries became trade centers and even usury.

− Becoming strong from the economic point of view, the Church began playing a great part in the political life. Some archbishops and metropolitans took part in political intrigues, but on the whole they were against intestine strife and for the unity of Russia.

− Some schools attached to Church were established. Church arts: icon painting and chronicles writing were flourished greatly.

− Moreover, princes started to charge legal proceedings, referring to family and religion, to Church.

− Assisting the development of culture and literacy Church suppressed the culture based on paganism, pursuiting merry holidays of Kolyada and Shrovetide as devilish.

− Promoting economical, cultural, religious closeness with the Byzantine Empire and other orthodox states, Church was against the Roman Catholic faith, assisting the isolation from the countries of Western Europe and cultural processes, which took place there.

International war in south Russian land

The internal war in south Russian land in ЗО-s of XIII century was the longest and the most violent one – the largest internal feudal strife in the history of medieval Russia. It began from the fight for Galich throne, which was passed to the son of Hungarian king according to the will of the Prince Mstislav Udaloy (died in 1228).

In 1233-1234 Daniil Romanovich Volynsky in alliance with Kiev prince Vladimir Rurikovich waged war against Hungarians, who were in the alliance with Chernigov Prince Mikhail Vsevolodich. In 1234 Daniil conquered Galich.

Next year Mikhail Chernigovsky with Izyaslav Mstislavich (most probably the son of Mstislav Udaloy) began military operations against Vladimir and Daniil, who couldn't have captured Chernigov and returned to Kiev. At the same time Izyaslav brought Polovtsy forces to Russia. Near Kiev Daniil and Vladimir were defeated, Vladimir was captured by the Polovtsy, and Izyaslav became the Prince of Kiev. Mikhail went to Galich land and captured Galich.

Vladimir was freed soon and became the Prince of Kiev again. But it wasn't possible for him to remain on the throne, so Vladimir and Daniil invited Novgorod Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodich to Kiev. Mikhail Chernigovsky had been the enemy of Yaroslav since long time – in 1229-1232 they had fierce struggle for Novgorod throne. In 1236 Yaroslav settled in Kiev. At the same time in Galich there was continuous war between Mikhail and Izyaslav on one side and Daniil and his brother Vasilke on the other side.

In winter of 1237-1238, Northeastern part of Russia was invaded by Baty's armies. The great Prince of Vladimir Yury Vsevolodovich (the elder brother of Yaroslav) was killed in the battle. In spring of 1238 Yaroslav left Kiev, went to the ruined Vladimir-Suzdal land and occupied the Vladimir throne. Mikhail made use of his enemies having weakened and captured Kiev, leaving his son Rostislav to reign in Galich. But Daniil managed to reconquer Galich the next year.

In the autumn of 1239, Mongol-Tatars ruined the land of Mikhail -Chernigov principality, and began to threaten Kiev. In winter of 1239-1240 Yaroslav began campaign to the south of Russia. Mikhail left Kiev right away, ran to Hungary, thus loosing everything he had. Rostislav Mstislavich ascended the throne, but Daniil soon dethroned him and settled Dmitry, his boyar, in Kiev. It was the eve of Baty khan campaign toKiev.

During the internal war Russian princes exhausted their force. This and their dissociation played negative role in the face of coming Mongol-Tatar invasion.

Mongolian invasion

In 1237-1241 Russian lands underwent a fierce attack from the Mongolian Empire – central Asian state, that conquered enormous territory of Euroasian continent from the Pacific ocean to Central Europe in the first part of XIII century. Mongols were called Tatars in Europe, by the name of one tribe that led nomadic life near the border with China. Chinese extended the name on all the Mongolian tribes, and the name «Tatars» defining Mongols extended to other countries, though Tatars were almost completely destroyed at the creation of the Mongolian Empire.

In 1206 Temujin (Temuchin) who accepted the name of Chingisk-han, was proclaimed the great Khan of all Mongols. During next 5 years Mongolian forces, united by Chingiskhan, conquered neighbouring lands and by 1215 had conquered North China. In 1221 Chingiskhan's army conquered Middle Asia.

First conflict between ancient Russia and Mongols was in 1223, when Mongolian army of 30.000 people came to Black sea steppes after defeating Alans and Polovtsy. Polovtsy asked Russian princes for help. And the united army of the three strongest Russian princes: Mstislav Romanovich of Kiev, Mstislav Svyatoslavich of Chernigov and Mstislav Metislavich of Galich, began the campaign against Mongolian tribes.

On May 31, 1223 at the battle on Kalka river (near the Azov sea) Russian-Polovtsy army was defeated because of uncoordinated actions. Six Russian princes were killed, three princes (including the prince of Kiev) were captured and then brutally killed. Thus, Russia for the first time experienced the military power of Mongolian Horde.

After the death of Chingiskhan, the founder of the Mongolian Empire (1227), Mongolian nobility decided to begin aggressive campaign against Europe according to Chingiskhan's will. Baty-khan, the grandson of Chingiskhan, headed the united army of the Mongolian empire. His first commander was Subedey, the outstanding Mongolian military leader who participated in the battle at Kalka.

A year after the beginning of the campaign, on conquering Volga Bulgaria, Polovtsy, lands of Burtas and Mordovia on the middle Volga in the late autumn of 1237, Baty's basic forces concentrated on Voronezh river preparing the invasion on Northeast Russia. Baty's horde consisted of 140.000 soldiers, and Russian princes could gather only 100.000 people from the whole Russian land, princes of Northeast Russia could gather not more than 30.000 people.

Internal wars that had been going on for decades hampered the formation of united Russian army. So, princes could resist the invasion only one by one. In the winter of 1237, Baty's horde ruined Ryazan principality, burned the capital and killed all the population. Then, in January of 1238, Mongols defeated the army of Vladimir-Suzdal land, captured Moscow and Suzdal. On February 7 they captured Vladimir. On March 4, 1238, on Siti river (upper Volga) they defeated the army of great prince Yury Vsevolodich who was killed in the battle.

The inhabitants of Kozelsk, a small town on Zhizdra river, did really a heroic feat of arms: for 7 weeks they managed to have been fighting with Mongols supporting the defense of their town. But the forces were obviously not equal. In May of 1238 Baty captured the town and in anger ordered to raze the town to the ground and kill all the people.

The summer of 1238 Baty spent in steppes near Don, restoring strength for future campaigns. In spring of 1239 he destroyed Pereyaslavl principality, in autumn – Chernigov-Seversk land.

In the autumn of 1240 Baty's army went to Europe through the south Russia. In September they surrended Kiev where Galich prince Daniil Romanovich reigned. South Russian princes still hadn't managed to organize the defence of their lands from Mongolian threat. After severe struggle Kiev was captured in 1240. Then Mongol Horde ruined almost all towns of south Russia in December of 1240 – January of 1241.

In the spring of 1241 conquering the Galich-Volyn land, Baty entered Poland, Hungary, Czechia, and then came to the borders of North Italy and Germany. But the army didn't get reinforcment, had significant losses and in the end of 1242 had to return to the steppes of low Volga. Here they founded the westmost ulus of the Mongolian Empire – the so called Golden Horde.

Golden horde: prosperity and fall

Golden Horde is the feudal state based in the beginning of 1240s of the XIII century, led by khan Baty (1236-1255), the son of khan Dzhuchi. The authority of khans of Golden Horde reached territory from low Danube and Finland gulf in the west up to basin of Irtysh and low Ob on the Volga, from the Black, Caspian and Aral seas and Balkhash lake in the south up to the Novgorod lands in the north. However the original Russian lands were not included territorially into the Golden Horde, and were in vassal dependence on it, they rendered tribute and submitted to orders of khans. The centre of Golden Horde was the Low Volga region, where at the time of Baty's reign the city of Saray-Batu (near modern Astrakhan) became the capital.

Golden Horde was an artificial and fragile state association. The population of Golden Horde was various. In settled areas Volga Bulgars, Mordovians, Russians, Greeks etc. lived. Turkic tribes Polovtsy (Kipchaks), Kanglys, Tatars, Turkmen, Kirghiz etc. constituted the basic part of nomads. The level of public and cultural development of the population of Golden Horde was also various. Among the nomadic population half-patriarchal, half-feudal relations dominated, in the areas with settled population – feudal relations.

After the conquests accompanied with monstrous destructions and human victims, an overall objective of Golden Horde governors was a robbery of the enslaved population. It was achieved by severe exactions. The basic part of the lands and pastures was concentrated in the hands of Mongolian feudal nobles for the benefit of which the labour population bore duties.

In the head of the state there were khans from the family of Baty. In especially important cases of political life kurultays – congresses of military and feudal nobles led by the members of the ruling dynasty, were summoned. Beklyare-bek supervised over state affairs (prince above princes), Vezirs – over separate branches. In cities and areas subordinated to them Darugs were sent, their main duty was taxation. Frequently alongside with Darugs, military leaders – Baskaks were appointed. The state system carried half-military character since military and administrative posts, as a rule, were not divided. Members of the ruling dynasty took the most important posts – Tsarevitches («Oglans», owning lands in Golden Horde and occupying posts in the head of the army).

Fragile character of the state association of Golden Horde and especially growth of emancipating struggle of captured and dependent peoples became the main reasons of disintegration and destruction of Golden Horde. Already at its formation Golden Horde was divided into Uluses, belonging to 14 sons of Dzhuchi: 13 brothers were half-independent sovereigns, submitting to the Supreme authority of Baty. Tendencies to separate appeared after the death of khan Mengu-Timur (1266-82) when feudal war between tsarevitches of Dzhuchi family began. At the time of Tuda-Mengu (1282-87) and Talabug (1287-91) the actual governor of the state became Nogay. Only khan Tohte (1291-1312) managed to get rid from Nogay and his supporters.

In 5 years a new distemper began. Its termination connected with the name of Uzbek khan (1312-42); at his time and the time of his successor Dzhanibek khan (1342-57) Golden Horde reached the maximal rise of military power. Military forces at Uzbek totaled up to 300 thousand people. However distempers, that began in 1357 with the murder of Dzhanibek, testified the beginning of its disintegration. From 1357 till 1380 on the Golden Horde throne had been more than 25 khans. In 1360-1370s the actual governor became Mamay. In the beginning of 1360s of XIV century Khorezm separated from Golden Horde, Poland and Lithuania grasped the lands in the river basin of Dnepr, Astrakhan separated. Mamay had to face the amplified union of Russian princedoms led by Moscow. The attempt of Mamay to weaken Russia by the organization of a huge extortionate campaign again resulted in the defeat of Tatars by the incorporated Russian armies in Kulikovo Battle of 1380. At the time of khan Tohtamysh (1380-95) distempers stopped, and the central authority began to supervise the basic territory of Golden Horde. Tohtamysh in 1380 crushed Mamay's army on the Kalka river, and in 1382 went to Moscow, captured it and burnt. After strengthening the authority he acted against Timur. As a result of some devastating campaigns Timur defeated Tohtamysh's armies, grasped and destroyed Volga region cities, including Saray-Berke, plundered cities of Crimea etc. Golden Horde couldn't recover any more after such a blow.

Russian culture in the period of the Mongol-Tatar invasion

The development of Russian culture didn't suffer such destructive changes as a whole, as those in the social – political field after the Invasion and the establishment of the Horde's dominion. However, the results of the Tatar raids were the great material and cultural losses. The growing dissociation of the Russian lands in the middle of XIII century adversely affected the development of the all-Russian cultural processes. Just after the establishment of the Horde domination, stone-building was temporarily stopped. The number of art crafts was lost (production of goods of niello and grain, porcelain, etc.) The production of manuscripts was reduced. The chroniclers' outlook was noticeably constricted. They almost lost interest to the events taking place in other principalities. At the same time the folklore art: epics, songs, legends, and warrior's stories, was rapidly developing and became the very important genre. It reflected the people's conception of the past and of the surrounding world. The number of epics and legends of XIV century was dedicated to comprehension of the Mongolian Invasion: the story of the battle at Kalka, of the devastation of Ryazan, of Baty's invasion, the saga about Eupatii Kolovrat, and also about the youth – defender of Smolensk Merkurii, who saved the city from Baty's army bythe will of the Blessed Virgin.

In conditions of reconstruction of the state unity in Northeast Russia over XIV – the beginning of XV century favorable prerequisites for cultural rise appeared, enriched by the growth of national self consciousness. The battle of Koulikovo had aroused patriotic feelings in Russian people. The number of outstanding literature masterpieces was dedicated to the splendid victory of Russian warriors on Koulikovo field, such as the annalistic tale 'About the great battle on the Don', 'The word about the existence and the pass away of the great prince Dmitry Ivanovich', military tale 'Zadonshina' (over Don), presumably compiled by Sofony Ryazanets ad exemplum 'The word about Igor's regiment'. Another work of the anti-horde series was the historic tale about Shelkan Dudentievich, relating to the revolt in Tver in 1237, about devastation of Moscow in 1382 by Tochtamysh, the invasions of Tamerlan and khan Edigey. The idea of the national liberation and patriotism was also reflected in the masterpieces dedicated to the defence of northeast boarders of the Russian land: 'The existence of Dovmont' and 'The existence of Alexander Nevsky'. The entire number of existence narrations was dedicated to the princes, lost in the Horde. Such as 'The existence of Mikhail of Chernigov' and 'The existence of Mikhail of Tver', where the princes appear as the defenders of Orthodoxy and their Fatherland. Since the second half of XIII century chronicle making was gradually being renewed. Galich – Volyri principality, Novgorod, Rostov the Great, Ryazan, later (from 1250) Vladimir and since the end of the second half of the XIVth century Tver were remaining its main centers. Since the second half of XIV century the art of compiling chronicles and manuscripts experienced the significant rise. Moscow tradition of chronicle making became basic. Simonov, Andronikov and other monasteries were its centers. It has come to the present times as a part of Trinity chronicles and unlike other local chronicles presents the first code of all-Russian character since the times of Old Russia. Writing was developing along with literature. The characteristics of the level of literacy – official deeds – were found during archeological dig in the XX century in Novgorod. Gradually, together with the development of book learning the character of writing was changing, business documentation was spreading. Standard writing 'ustav' was replaced by quicker and more fluent form of writing 'poluustav'. And in the end of XIV century the development of cursive writing was started. Paper was little by little ousting the more expensive parchment.

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