Articles and Essays 4 страница

Interplanetary Architecture, 1967 Concept: Superstudio Arizona Desert, 1970 Concept: Superstudio Twelve Ideal Cities, 1972 Concept: Superstudio The Falling In Love Machine, 1968 Concept: Superstudio Members of Superstudio, 1970 Poster for a Superstudio exhibition Design: Superstudio

Article 11. Superstudio Architectural Group (1966-1978) Design Museum Touring Exhibition Founded in Florence by a group of radical young architects in 1966, SUPERSTUDIO was at the heart of the architectural and design avant garde until its dissolution in the late 1970s. Through photo-collages, films and exhibitions, it critiqued the modernist doctrines that had dominated 20th century design thinking. "In the beginning we designed objects for production, designs to be turned into wood and steel, glass and brick or plastic - then we produced neutral and usable designs, then finally negative utopias, forewarning images of the horrors which architecture was laying in store for us with its scientific methods for the perpetuation of existing models." This was how Superstudio described its work in a catalogue the group produced to accompany the 1973 exhibition Fragments From A Personal Museum at the Neue Galerie in Graz, Austria. Superstudio was then at the fulcrum of avant garde thinking in architecture and design. Ever since it first surfaced in 1966 at the Superarchitecture exhibition in the Italian town of Pistoia, Superstudio had been among the most vociferous of the radical design groups which were challenging the modernist orthodoxies that had dominated architectural thinking for decades. By questioning architecture's ability to change the world for the better and the boundless faith in technology expressed by earlier, more optimistic groups such as Archigram in the UK, Superstudio raised issues which have preoccupied successive generations of architects and designers from Studio Alchymia in late 1970s Italy and to the Memphis collective in the mid-1980s, to contemporary figures like Rem Koolhaas and Foreign Office Architects. Superstudio was founded in 1966 by two radicals – Adolfo Natalini and Cristiano Toraldo di Francia - who had met while studying architecture at the University of Florence. Later they were joined by Alessandro and Roberto Magris and Piero Frassinelli. The group's relationship with Florence, where the five founders continued to live after graduation, was critical to its work. "It is the designer who must attempt to re-evaluate his role in the nightmare he helped to conceive, to retread the historical process which inverted the hopes of the modern movement," pronounced Toraldo di Francia. "And in Italy, Florence, a town where all such contradictions become most evident (the moment one draws the curtains of mythically misrepresented past) stands historically symbolic." Yet the central theme of Superstudio's agenda over the next 12 years would be its disillusionment with the modernist ideals that had dominated architectural and design thinking since the early 1900s. Once fresh and dynamic, by the late 1960s, modernism had hit intellectual stasis. Rather than blithely regarding architecture as a benevolent force, the members of Superstudio blamed it for having aggravated the world's social and environmental problems. Equally pessimistic about politics, the group developed visionary scenarios in the form of photo-montages, sketches, collages and storyboards of a new 'Anti-Design' culture in which everyone is given a sparse, but functional space to live in free from superfluous objects. Superstudio was not alone in its concerns. The collective emerged in 1966 at the moment when the technocratic optimism of the first half of the 1960s was souring. The watershed was the beginning of the Cultural Revolution in China in 1966 when Mao Tse-tung gave Western intellectuals a new cause to believe in after a decade of disillusion since their faith in communism was shattered by Khrushchev’s exposure of Stalin's brutalities. Events in China made Western society seem spiritually barren at a time of growing concern about the Vietnam War. In the visual arts, radicals rebelled against the extrovert imagery of Pop Art in favour of the politically engaged work of Fluxus artists like Joseph Beuys and Nam June Paik. The rising tide of political frustration culminated in the 1968 student riots in Paris and copycat protests in London, Tokyo and Prague. Women formed fledgeling feminist movements such as the Women's Liberation Front in the US and Mouvement de Libération des Femmes in France. Decades of oppression against gay men and women erupted in a pitched battle in New York, when the police tried to close the Stonewall, a gay bar in the West Village and a politicised gay rights movement exploded. Superstudio's response was to develop its 'Anti-Design' projects: themes from which were echoed in the work of other radical architects and designers, notably the members of Archizoom, a fellow Florentine group consisting of Andrea Branzi, Gilberto Corretti, Paolo Deganello, Dario and Lucia Bartolini and Massimo Morozzi. Both groups were founded in 1966 and their first important project was to express their theories about the crisis of modernism in the Superarchitecture exhibition in Pistoia, Italy. A year later, they refined the ideas aired in Superarchitecture in a joint follow-up show in Modena. During this period, Superstudio still clung to the conventional wisdom that architecture could be a powerful – and positive – force for progress. By 1968, the group had dismissed this notion as improbably optimistic. The following year Superstudio unveiled The Continuous Monument project in which the apparently endless framework of a black-on-white grid - which was to become the group's best known motif - extends across the earth’s surface in a critique of what Superstudio saw as the absurdities of contemporary urban planning. The group created photo-collages to show the grid cloaking the Rocky Coast, Coketown and Manhattan. In 1970, Superstudio then revived the grid – its "neutral surface" – in a collection of furniture manufactured by the Italian company Zanotta. Designed in stark, geometric forms and covered in the ABET plastic laminate traditionally associated with cheap cafés and 1950s coffee bars, its Quaderna tables, benches and seats were a wry, but functional commentary on political disillusionment. During the early 1970s, Superstudio made a series of films intending to raise awareness of the potentially negative environmental impact of architecture at a time when such issues were seldom explored. In 1972 the group was offered an opportunity to articulate its theories to a broader public by participating in Italy: The New Domestic Landscape, an exhibition of contemporary Italian design at the Museum of Modern Art in New York. The radical work of Superstudio and Archizoom was shown alongside that of their more conventional compatriots such as Marco Zanuso and Richard Sapper. During the same year, Superstudio set its sights on the heritage movement by developing a surreal proposal to flood Florence by blocking the Arno thereby submerging the city centre under water except for the dome of the cathedral in a parody of the conservative Save the Historic Centres campaign. The group was given another prestigious international forum in 1973 when its work was surveyed in a retrospective exhibition – Fragments From A Personal Museum – at the Neue Galerie in Graz. By then, most of the members of Superstudio were teaching at the University of Florence, where they had met as students. The group remained active – albeit less energetically so – throughout the mid-1970s, only to fold in 1978 when the five founders concurred that they had lost momentum as a collaborative force and that they might be more effective by working independently. Superstudio's thinking has proved more enduring than the group itself. Quaderna tables are still in production at Zanotta and Superstudio's collages and drawings have been acquired for the permanent collections of Centre Georges Pompidou in Paris and the Museum of Modern Art, New York. Moreover the group's once radical theories about architecture's environmental impact, the potentially negative consequences of technology and the inability of politics to untangle complex social problems are now considered to be core concerns by self-aware contemporary architects and designers. 1966 Superstudio is founded in Florence by Adolfo Natalini and Cristiano Toraldo di Francia, who are later joined by Alessandro and Roberto Magris and Alessandro Poli. The group participates in the Superarchitecture exhibition in Pistoia with Archizoom. 1967 Themes from Superarchitecture are explored again in an exhibition in Modena. 1969 The Continuous Monument project is unveiled. This marks the debut of the monochrome grid which will become the most potent visual symbol of Superstudio. 1970 The monochrome grid is reconfigured as various opaque forms in the Reflected Architecture series of photo-collages. One form frames the Niagara Falls. Another is a forested cube in San Francisco Bay. Zanotta, the Italian furniture manufacturer, starts production of the Quaderna tables covered in grid-patterened ABET plastic laminate. 1972 Superstudio participates in Italy: The New Domestic Landscape at the Museum of Modern Art, New York. The group critiques the heritage movement by unveiling a fantastical plan to submerge the historic centre of Florence under water by flooding the River Arno. 1973 A retrospective of Superstudio’s work – Fragments From A Personal Museum – opens as a touring exhibition at the Neue Galerie in Graz, Austria. Members of Superstudio start teaching jobs at the University of Florence. 1978 Superstudio abandons working as a collective, but its members continue to develop their ideas independently through their writing teaching, architecture and design projects. © Design Museum designmuseum.org

Amazing Archigram, 1964 Cover illustration of the fourth issue of Archigram magazine © Archigram Walking City in New York, 1964 © Ron Herron, Archigram Courtesy Ron Herron Archive Seaside Bubbles, 1966 © Ron Herron, Archigram Courtesy Ron Herron Archive Living Pod, 1966 © David Greene, Archigram Tuned Suburb, 1968 © Ron Herron, Archigram Courtesy Ron Herron Archive Instant City Airships, 1968 © Peter Cook, Archigram Banquet, Features Monte-Carlo, 1969 © Peter Cook, Dennis Crompton, Ron Herron, Archigram Electronic Tomato, 1969 © Warren Chalk, David Greene, Archigram

Article 12. Archigram Architects (1961-1974) ARCHIGRAM dominated the architectural avant garde in the 1960s and early 1970s with its playful, pop-inspired visions of a technocratic future after its formation in 1961 by a group of young London architects – Warren Chalk, Peter Cook, Dennis Crompton, David Greene, Ron Herron and Michael Webb. “A new generation of architecture must arise with forms and spaces which seems to reject the precepts of ‘Modern’ yet in fact retains those precepts. We have chosen to by pass the decaying Bauhaus image which is an insult to functionalism. You can roll out steel – any length. You can blow up a balloon – any size. You can mould plastic – any shape. Blokes that built the Forth Bridge – they didn’t worry.” So wrote David Greene in a poem published in the first issue of Archigram magazine or, as Greene’s co-editor, Peter Cook, called it “a message, or abstract communication”. It was published in 1961 on a large sheet of the cheapest available paper. Filled with Greene’s poems and sketches of architectural projects designed by Cook, Michael ‘Spider’ Webb and other friends, the magazine voiced their frustration with the intellectual conservatism of the British architectural establishment. It was a time of radical change. Politics had skipped a generation when John F. Kennedy was elected president of the United States in 1960. The theories of Michel Foucault, Roland Barthes and Claude Lévi-Strauss were igniting the intelligentsia; as were the films of Jean-Luc Godard, Federico Fellini and François Truffaut in cinema. It was also a time of extraordinary technological advances when the Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first man in space and the first weather satellite was launched from Cape Canaveral. The photocopier was invented, as were laser action hologram and the contraceptive pill. Prosperous and self-satisfied after a decade of post-war reconstruction, British architecture – the “staid Queen Mother of the arts” as the critic Reyner Banham described it – had chosed to ignore these changes. Determined to develop their own approach, rather than risk being co-opted into the architectural establishment, the Archigram group inveighed against what Cook later described as: “the crap going up in London, against the attitude of a continuing European tradition of well-mannered, but gutless architecture that had absorbed the label “Modern” but had betrayed most of the philosophies of the earliest ‘Modern’.” They sold 300 copies of their magazine at nine pence each, mostly to architectural students and assistants in architects’ offices. As Cook recalled, it was “brushed off by the few senior architects who saw it as a student joke and…everybody thought it would die a natural death.” A year later, he, Greene and Webb printed a second, more substantial issue, which was typeset on stapled pages like a conventional magazine. It consisted of statements of intent by young architects including a trio – Warren Chalk, Dennis Crompton and Ron Herron – who worked together at London County Council and whose names had been noted enviously by the Archigram’s founders as the runners-up in various architectural competitions. The second issue of Archigram came out in 1962, the year when Yves Saint Laurent opened his Paris fashion house, the Beatles stormed the pop charts with their debut single Love Me Do and Bob Dylan released his first album. Pop art hit the headlines when The New Realists, an exhibition featuring the work of Andy Warhol, Roy Lichtenstein and Claus Oldenburg, opened in New York and, a few months later, the young British artists – David Hockney, Allen Jones and Peter Blake – were the hit of the Paris Biennial. Cook, Greene, Webb and their new collaborators – Chalk, Crompton and Herron – were invited to produce an exhibition at the Institute of Contemporary Arts in London. It opened in 1963 as Living City, a manifesto for their belief “in the city as a unique organism”, which is more than a collection of buildings, but a means of liberating people by embracing technology and empowering them to choose how to lead their lives. Living City caught the attention of Reyner Banham who, having championed Alison and Peter Smithson, two of the few “senior architects” whom the Archigram group admired, in the 1950s, now hailed Archigram as the pioneers of a new pop architecture in the 1960s. Rather than dying the “natural death” as its critics had expected, Archigram – the magazine and its editors – flourished. Archigram was defined less by a specific set of principles, than by an optimistic spirit. Its members shared a refusal to be shackled by the past – “The pre-packaged frozen lunch is more important than Palladio,” opined Peter Cook – and a belief that the potent combination of social change and technological advance would foster a more humane architecture equipped to embrace the complexities and opportunities of contemporary life. One of its strengths was the diversity of a group in which the six core members and their collaborators came from very different backgrounds with different skills and enthusiasms. “The overlap was an enjoyment of teasing,” wrote Cook, “teasing the architectural extremity, and most of the architectural language.” The US critic Michael Sorkin defined Archigram’s influences as a combination of Britain’s heroic engineering heritage – Crystal Palace, the Dreadnought, the Spitfire, the Forth Bridge and the work of Isambard Kingdom Brunel – with Buckminster Fuller’s technocractic idealism and vernacular images of Marvel Comics and The Eagle, Meccano, sci-fi films, pop music, funfairs and pop art. “Bewitched by nomadic fantasies, Archigram argued that an architecture based on mobility and malleability could set people free,” he wrote. “This notion of consumer choice combined optimised technology, a post-Beat hitchhiker’s sense of freedom and the giddy styles of customisation found in Detroit.” Critically, Archigram’s approach to architecture was fun, as illustrated by two of the group’s most memorable projects: Ron Herron’s 1964 cartoon drawings of a Walking City, in which a city of giant, reptilian structures literally glided across the globe on enormous legs until its inhabitants found a place where they wanted to settle; and the crane-mounted living pods that could be plugged in wherever their inhabitants wished in Peter Cook’s 1964 Plug-in City. Equally irreverent were the ingenious devices that Archigram dreamt up to fulfil the functions of traditional buildings from miniaturised capsule homes like Ron Herron and Warren Chalk’s 1965 Gasket Homes and David Greene’s 1966 Living Pod, or Michael Webb’s 1966 Cushicle mobile environment and his 1967 wearable house, the Suitaloon. In 1968, the group proposed to transport all the entertainment and education resources of a metropolis in an Instant City airship, which would fly from place to place and temporarily ‘land’ in small communites to enable the inhabitants to enjoy the buzz of life in a city. By the end of the 1960s, Archigram’s magazine was selling several thousand copies an issue and had published the work of then-aspiring architects such as Nicholas Grimshaw, Arata Isozaki, Hans Hollein and Frei Otto as well as the members of the group. In 1969, the group, which, by then, had gained Colin Fournier and Ken Allison, opened an architectural practise after winning a competition to design a leisure centre in Monte-Carlo. The design was of an enormous circular dome buried underground by the Mediterranean. The seats, toilets and lights were mounted on wheels to be moved around into new configurations as the use of the building changed. The funding collapsed and the leisure centre was never built. The cultural climate, once so empathetic to Archigram’s technocractic optimism, was darkening as the brutality of the war in Vietnam and civil unrest in Northern Ireland, demonstrated the macabre side of technological advances. Over the next five years, Archigram fragmented as its members left to pursue new interests. When the practise dissolved in 1974, Archigram had realised three projects, all completed in 1973 by Dennis Crompton and Ron Herron: a children’s playground in Milton Keynes, an exhibition at the Commonwealth Institute in London and a swimming pool for the singer Rod Stewart. “Archigram gave us a chance to let rip and show what we wanted to do if only anyone would let us,” said Ron Herron just before his death in 1994. “They didn’t.” Yet Archigram’s influence has endured. It is visible not only in the subsequent work of the group’s members but in buildings by other architects such as Richard Rogers and Renzo Piano’s jubilantly technocractic Centre Georges Pompidou in Paris or Will Alsop’s ebullient Peckham Library in south London. It is also acknowledged in the writing of later generations of architects such as Zaha Hadid and Rem Koolhaas who described Archigram in his Report on the City 1 and 2 as being among the last “new movements in urbanism”. BIOGRAPHY 1927 Warren Chalk born in London: studies at Manchester School of Art. 1930 Ron Herron born in London: studies architecture at the Brixton School of Building and Regent Street Polytechnic, London. 1935 Dennis Crompton born in Blackpool: studies architecture at Manchester University. 1936 Peter Cook born in Southend on Sea: studies at Bournemouth School of Art and the Architectural Association in London. 1937 David Greene born in Nottingham, where he will study architecture. Michael Webb born in Henley on Thames: studies at Regent Street Polytechnic in London. 1961 Peter Cooke, David Greene and Michael Webb launch Archigram as a single sheet magazine or “instant communication”. 1962 They invite like-minded architects to contribute to the second issue including Warren Chalk, Dennis Crompton and Ron Herron, all working for London County Council. Theo Crosby employs all six in the special design group of the Taylor Woodrow Construction Company. 1963 The group is invited to organise a manifesto exhibition – Living City – at the Institute of Contemporary Arts, London. 1964 Living City is published in the third issue of Archigram, as is Peter cook's Plug-In City in the fourth and Ron Herron’s Walking City in the fifth. 1965 Peter Cook develops the Plug-in University as an extension of his Plug-in City. The group’s experiments with capsules for living produce Ron Herron and Warren Chalk’s Gasket Home enclosures. 1966 David Greene designs the Living Pod for capsule living and Michael Webb the Cushicle mobile environment. 1967 The Daily Telegraph invites Archigram to design a “house for the year 1990” to be exhibited in Harrods. It has moveable walls, ceilings and floors with inflatable sleeping and seating structures. Michael Webb designs the Suitaloon wearable ‘house’. 1968 The Instant City project funded by the Gaham Foundation, Chicago explores the concept of a ‘travelling city’ airship with the entertainment and educational resources of a metropolis. 1969 Archigram wins a competition to design a leisure centre in Monte-Carlo and opens an architectural practise. 1972 Dennis Crompton and Ron Herron design a swimming pool for the singer Rod Stewart and a children’s playground in Milton Keynes. 1973 Crompton and Herron design the Instant Malaysia exhibition at the Commonwealth Institute in London. 1974 Archigram office closes. 1987 Death of Warren Chalk. 1994 Death of Ron Herron. The exhibition Archigram: Experimental Architecture opens in Vienna, then Centre Georges Pompidou in Paris and tours the world for the next decade. 2002 Archigram is awarded the Gold Medal of the Royal Institute of British Architects. 2004 The Archigram exhibition is presented at the Design Museum. 2007 Peter Cook awarded a knighthood for services to architecture. FURTHER READING Archigram, Peter Cook, Princeton Architectural Press, 1999 Concerning Archigram, Dennis Crompton, Archigram Archives, 1999 Archigram: Architecture Now, Ron Herron and Dennis Crompton, St Martins Press, 1980 Peter Cook: Beyond Archigram: A Bibiliography, Sara S. Richardson, Vance Bibiliographies, 1999 A Guide to Archigram: 1961-1974, Herbert Lachmayer, Wiley-Academy, 1994 Archigram, Peter Cook, Studio Vista, 1972 For more information on British design and architecture go to Design in Britain, the online archive run as a collaboration between the Design Museum and British Council, at designmuseum.org/designinbritain © Design Museum

Tim Berners-Lee The Design Museum website at http://www.designmuseum.org Web design by Daniel Brown at http://www.play-create.com Web design by Joshua Davis at http://www.praystation.com Web design by Draga at http://www.draga.co.uk Web design by LeCielEstBleu at http://www.lecielestbleu.com Web design by Yugo Nakamura at http://www.yugop.com Web design by James Paterson at http://www.presstube.com Web design by Amit Pitaru at http://www.pitaru.com Web design by Shinya Yamamoto at http://www.sinplex.com

Article 13. Tim Berners-Lee Software Engineer (1955-) Great British Design Quest In less than two decades, the World Wide Web has transformed the lives of millions of people by giving us free and instant access to online information. Designed by the British software engineer TIM BERNERS-LEE (1955-) the web is a democratic medium which is equally available to us all. It is testimony to the power of the World Wide Web that, less than two decades after its invention, hundreds of millions of people all over the world could not imagine their daily lives without it. Even if they could, life without access to the web would be less enjoyable and efficient. By giving us free and instant access to online information and enabling us to communicate our ideas and knowledge to other people in the same instantly accessible way, the web has also transformed the way that we think and behave. The World Wide Web was designed by the British software engineer Tim Berners-Lee. Simply constructing an online information network programmed to enable computers to replicate some of the intuitive abilities of the human brain is a remarkable achievement in itself, but Berners-Lee went on to ensure that his invention would be freely accessible to everyone and to eradicate the risk of the web being controlled by commercial forces. Determined to prevent this, Berners-Lee designed the web as a democratic medium in which everything was equally accessible, regardless of size or quality. “The dream of the web is of a common information space in which we communicate by sharing information,” he wrote. “Its universality is essential: the fact that a hypertext link can point to anything, be it personal, local or global.” This is why the smallest and least sophisticated websites are as easy to locate as the most expensive ones owned by powerful multinationals. In 1994, three years after the launch of the web, Berners-Lee founded the World Wide Web Consortium to regulate its future development and to protect its democratic spirit. Born in London in 1955, Berners-Lee is the son of the mathematicians Conway Berners-Lee and Mary Lee Woods, who worked on the development of the pioneering Manchester Mark 1 computer. By the time he enrolled at Queens College, Oxford in 1973, Berners-Lee was a keen inventor and built his first computer there with such makeshift materials as a soldering iron, an M6800 processor and an old television set. While at Oxford he and a friend were caught hacking and banned from using the university computer. After graduating in 1976, Berners-Lee worked for the telecommunications equipment manufacturer Plessey Telecommunications at Poole in Dorset and then worked for various companies as a freelance software engineer. One of his goals was to find a way of combining the processing power of the computer with the intuitive qualities of the human brain. “There have always been things which people are good at and things computers have been good at, and little overlap between the two,” he wrote. “I was brought up to understand this distinction in the 1950s and 1960s, and that intuition and understanding were human characteristics, and that computers worked mechanically in tables and hierarchies.” He set about developing a software programme to address this by enabling computers to make – and to store – random associations between disparate pieces of information. Berners-Lee wrote the first such programme, Enquire – full name Enquire-Within-Upon-Everything – in 1980 while working at CERN, the European Particle Physics Laboratory in Geneva. Intended only for his private use, he never published Enquire, but continued to develop similar programmes throughout the 1980s. After returning to CERN in 1984, Berners-Lee was encouraged to continue his experiments by his manager Mike Sendall, who ordered the software and hardware he needed to do so. CERN was then the largest internet node in Europe, and Berners-Lee worked on ways of combining the internet and hypertext. In 1989 he published a paper entitled Information Management: A Proposal and started work on the development of the first web browser and editor. Named the WorlDwidEweb, the result of his research was a global hypertext project designed to enable people to work together by exchanging and combining knowledge in a web of hypertext documents. By the end of 1990 Berners-Lee circulated his work on the World Wide Web within CERN and then made it more widely available, together with the first web server, named httpd, in the research and scientific communities. On 6 August 1991 the first website went online at http://info.cern.ch. Designed by Berners-Lee, it explained what the World Wide Web was, how to own a web browser and to set up a web server. From the start Berners-Lee made sure that his work and the thinking behind it was freely accessible to as many people as possible. For the next three years Berners-Lee and his colleagues refined the design of the web and encouraged other people to use it. As more people learnt about his invention they aired their own views on how it should evolve. From the beginning, Berners-Lee waived his right to patent his design or to earn royalties from its use thereby establishing the web as a non-commercial medium. By 1994 the usage of http://info.cern.ch was a thousand times higher than three years before. At first Berners-Lee’s fellow academics had used it, followed by early adopters in the information technology industry. The growing popularity of the web intensified the threat of a powerful information technology company finding a way to dominate it or of supplanting it with a commercial alternative. In September 1994 Berners-Lee founded the World Wide Web Consortium to regulate its future. He described the consortium, which is based at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the US with off-shoots at INRIA in France and Keio University in Japan, as: “a neutral open forum where companies and organisations to whom the future of the web is important come to discuss and agree on common computer protocols. It has been a centre for issue raising, design and decision by consensus.” Now based at MIT in Boston as director of the World Wide Web Consortium, Tim Berners-Lee has been able to safeguard the spirit of his original invention and to plan the next phase of the web’s development which, he argues, will be even more exciting. “The great need for information about information, to help us categorise, sort, pay for and own information is driving the design of languages for the web designed for processing by machines, rather than people,” he observed. “The web of human-readable document is being merged with a web of machine understandable data. The potential of the mixture of humans and machines working together and communication through the web could be immense.” © Design Museum BIOGRAPHY 1955 Tim Berners-Lee is born in London, the son of mathematicians who worked on the development of the Manchester Mark 1 computer. 1973 Becomes a student at Queens College, Oxford, where he and a friend are caught by the authorities hacking into the university computer. 1976 Joins Plessey Telecommunications at Poole in Dorset to develop distributed transaction systems, message relays and bar code technology. 1978 Leaves Plessey for D. G. Nash at Ferndown in Dorset where he writes typesetting software for intelligent printers and a multitask operating system. 1980 While working as a consultant software engineer at CERN, the European Particle Physics Laboratory in Geneva, he designs Enquire, a software programme for his personal use to recognise and store random associations of information. 1981 Joins Image Control Systems to develop real-time control firmware and graphics and communications software. 1984 Becomes a fellow at CERN to work on distributed real-time systems for scientific data acquisition and system control. 1989 Begins the development of the World Wide Web, a global hypertext project, as well as of the first web server and browser. 1990 The World Wide Web is made available to colleagues at CERN. 1991 Berners-Lee publishes his development work on the World Wide Web on the first website at http://info.cern.ch as well as explaining how other people can use the web. 1992 Usage of the web spreads within the academic community. 1993 Early adopters in the information technology industry start to use the web. 1994 Berners-Lee founds the World Wide Web Consortium based at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the US to regulate the development of the web by consensus. 1996 The consortium collaborates with Hakon Wium Lee to announce the Cascading Style Sheets standard, which is adopted by popular browsers in 2000 and 2001. 1999 Time magazine names Tim Berners-Lee as one of the 100 most influential people of the 20th century. 2000 Publication of Weaving the Web, Berners-Lee’s book on his invention. 2005 Berners-Lee publishes the book Spinning the Semantic Web: Bringing the Worldwide Web to Its Full Potential. © Design Museum FURTHER READING Tim Berners-Lee with Mark Fischetti, Weaving the Web: Origins and Future of the World Wide Web, Texere Publishing, 2000 Robert Caillau, James Gillies, How the Web was Born: The Story of the World Wide Web, Oxford University Press, 2000 Ann Gaines, Tim Berners-Lee and the Development of the World Wide Web, Mitchell Gaines Publishers, 2001 Melissa Stewart, Tim Berners-Lee: Inventor of the World Wide Web, Ferguson Publishing Company, 2001 Tim Berners-Lee, The Unfinished Revolution: How to Make Technology Work for Us Instead of the Other Way Around, HarperCollins, 2002 Tim Berners-Lee, Spinning the Semantic Web: Bringing the Worldwide Web to Its Full Potential, The MIT Press, 2005 designmuseum.org

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