Besides, however, nevertheless, otherwise, so, therefore, still, yet, though

These adverbs/conjunctions can join clauses or sentences and are then often known as 'conjuncts'. But they can also, with the exception of nevertheless and therefore (conjuncts), be used in other ways. Their position will vary according to how they are used.

A besides (preposition) means 'in addition to'. It precedes a noun/pronoun/gerund:

Besides doing the cooking I look after the garden. besides (conjunct) means 'in addition'. It usually precedes its clause, but can follow it:

I can't go now; I'm too busy. Besides, my passport is out of date. moreover could replace besides here in more formal English. anyway or in any case could be used here in more informal English:

Anyway, my passport's out of date.

В however (adverb of degree, see 41) precedes its adjective/adverb: You couldn 't earn much, however hard you worked.

however (conjunct) usually means 'but'. It can precede or follow its clause or come after the first word or phrase:

I'll offer it to Tom. However, he may not want it or

He may not want it however or Tom, however, may not want it or

//, however, he doesn't want it...

But when two contrasting statements are mentioned, however can mean 'but/nevertheless/all the same':

They hadn 't trained hard, but/however/nevertheless/all the same they won or they won, however/nevertheless/all the same.

(See also 329.)

С otherwise (adverb of manner) usually comes after the verb:

It must be used in a well-ventilated room. Used otherwise (= in a different way) it could be harmful. otherwise

E therefore can be used instead of so in formal English.

It can come at the beginning of the clause or after the first word or phrase; or before the main verb:

There is fog at Heathrow; the plane, therefore, has been diverted/the plane has therefore been diverted/therefore

the plane has been diverted.

F still and yet can be adverbs of time (see 37):

The children are still up. They haven't had supper yet. still and yet (conjunct) come at the beginning of clauses. still means 'admitting that/nevertheless'.

yet means 'in spite of that/all the same/nevertheless'.

You aren't rich; still, you could do something to help him. They are ugly and expensive; yet people buy them.

G though/although normally introduce clauses of concession (see 340):

Though/Although they're expensive, people buy them. though (but not although) can also be used to link two main clauses. though used in this way means 'but' or 'yet' and is placed sometimes at the beginning but more often at the end of its clause: He says he 'II pay, though I don't think he will or He says he'll pay; I don't think he will, though.

328 Subordinating conjunctions: if, that, though/although, unless, when etc.

Subordinating conjunctions introduce subordinate adverb or noun clauses and are dealt with in the chapters on the different types of clause.

See chapter 21 for conditional clauses, chapter 33 for purpose clauses, chapter 34 for adverb clauses of reason, result, concession, comparison and time, and chapter 35 for noun clauses.

Some conjunctions have more than one meaning and may introduce more than one type of clause.

Pairs and groups of conjunctions which are sometimes confused with each other or with other parts of speech are dealt with below.

329 though/although and in spite of (preposition phrase), despite (preposition)

Two opposing or contrasting statements, such as He had no qualifications and He got the job, could be combined as follows:

A With but, however or nevertheless as shown in 327 above: He had no qualifications but he got the job. He had no qualifications; however he got the job/he got the job, however. He had no qualifications; nevertheless he got the job.

В With though/although:

He got the job although he had no qualifications. Although he had no qualifications he got the job.

С With in spite of/despite + noun/pronoun/gerund:

In spite of having no qualifications he got the job. He got the job in spite of having no qualifications.

despite = in spite of. It is chiefly used in newspapers and in formal English:

Despite the severe weather conditions all the cars completed the course.

D Note that though/although requires subject + verb:

Although it was windy... and that in spite of/despite requires noun/pronoun or gerund:

In spite of the wind... Some more examples:

Although it smelt horrible... = In spite of the horrible smell... Although it was dangerous... = In spite of the danger... Though he was inexperienced... = In spite of his inexperience/his being inexperienced...

For and because

These conjunctions have nearly the same meaning and very often either can be used. It is, however, safer to use because, as a clause introduced by for (which we will call a 'for-clause') has a more restricted use than a clause introduced by because:

1 A for-clause cannot precede the verb which it explains:

Because it was wet he took a taxi, (for is not possible.)

2 A for-clause cannot be preceded by not, but or any conjunction:

He stole, not because he wanted the money but because he liked stealing, (for not possible)

3 A for-clause cannot be used in answer to a question:

Why did you do it? ~ I did it because I was angry, (for not possible)

4 A for-clause cannot be a mere repetition of what has been already stated, but always includes some new piece of information:

He spoke in French. She was angry because he had spoken in French, (for is not possible.)

But She was angry, for she didn't know French. (Here for is correct; because is also possible.)

The reason for these restrictions is that a for-clause does not tell us why a certain action was performed, but merely presents a piece of additional information which helps to explain it.

Some examples of for-clauses:

The days were short, for it was now December.

He took the food eagerly, for he had eaten nothing since dawn.: When I saw her in the river I was frightened. For at that point the

. currents were dangerous.

: In speech a short pause is usually made before a for-clause and in '. written English this place is usually marked by a comma, and sometimes, as in the last example above, by a full stop.

because could be used in the above sentences also, though for is better.

331 when, while, as used to express time

A when is used, with simple tenses:

1 When one action occurs at the same time as another or in the span of another:

When it is wet the buses are crowded.

When we lived in town we often went to the theatre.

2 When one action follows another:

When she pressed the button the lift stopped.

В as is used:

1 When the second action occurs before the first is finished: As / left the house I remembered the key.

This implies that I remembered the key before I had completed the action of leaving the house; I was probably still in the doorway. While I was leaving would have the same meaning here, but When I left would give the impression that the act of leaving was complete and the door; shut behind me.

2 For parallel actions: He sang as he worked.

3 For parallel development:

As the sun rose the fog dispersed. As it grew darker it became colder =

The darker it grew, the colder it became.

As she came to know him better she relied on him more.

As he became more competent he was given more interesting work. If we used when here we would lose all idea of simultaneous progression or development.

4 To mean while (= during the time that):

As he stood there he saw two men enter the bar. But there is no particular advantage in using as here, and while

is safer.

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