in case and lest A in case 1 страница

1 in case + subject + verb can follow a statement or command:

/ don't let him climb trees in case he tears his trousers. This first action is usually a preparation for, or a precaution against, the action in the in case-clause, which is a possible future action. in case + present tense normally has the meaning 'because this may happen/because perhaps this will happen' or 'for fear that this may

happen'.

in case + past tense normally means 'because this might happen/because perhaps this would happen' or 'for fear that this would happen'.

Both present tense and past tense here can be replaced by should + infinitive, should used here would express greater improbability, but this construction is not very usual.

2 Tenses with in case Main verb

Future present tense or

Present + in case +

Present perfect should + infinitive

Conditional past tense or Past tense + in case +

Past perfect

should + infinitive

I'll make a cake in case someone drops in at the weekend. I carry a spare wheel in case I have/should have a puncture. I always keep candles in the house in case there is a power cut. I always kept candles in the house in case there was a power cut. (See also 227.)

lest means 'for fear that' and is followed by should:

He doesn 't/didn 't dare to leave the house lest someone should recognize him.

lest is rarely found except in formal written English.

34 Clauses of reason, result, concession, comparison, time

338 Clauses of reason and result/cause

Except for the type shown in A2 and A3 below, both these clauses can be introduced by as or because. But as is safer for clauses of reason (see A below) and because is safer for clauses of result/cause (see B).

A Clauses of reason

1 Introduced by as/because/since:

We camped there as/because/since it was too dark to go on. As/Because/Since it was too dark to go on, we camped there.

2 'in view of the fact that' can be expressed by as/since/seeing that, but not because:

As/Since/Seeing that you are here, you may as well give me a hand. As/Since/Seeing that Tom knows French, he 'd better do the talking.

3 Where as/since/seeing that refers to a statement previously made or understood, it is replaceable by if:

As/Since/Seeing that/If you don't like Bill, why did you invite him? Note the use of if so:

I hope Bill won't come. ~ If so (= If you hope he won't come),

why did you invite him? For if + so/not, see 347.

В Clauses of result/cause (see also 339) are introduced by because or as:

The fuse blew because we had overloaded the circuit. He was angry because we were late.

As it froze hard that night there was ice everywhere next day. As the soup was very salty we were thirsty afterwards.

С These combinations could also be expressed by two main clauses joined by so:

It was too dark to go on, so we camped there. You are here, so you may as well give me a hand.

It froze hard that night, so there was ice everywhere next day. therefore can also be used, but is normal only in fairly formal sentences:

The Finnish delegate has not yet arrived. We are therefore postponing/We have therefore decided to postpone/Therefore we are postponing the meeting. (Notice possible positions of therefore.)

339 Clauses of result with such/so... that

A such is an adjective and is used before an adjective + noun:

They had such a fierce dog that no one dared to go near their house. He spoke for such a long time that people began to fall asleep.

В so is an adverb and is used before adverbs and with adjectives which are not followed by their nouns:

The snow fell so fast that our footsteps were soon covered up. His speech went on for so long that people began to fall asleep.

Their dog was so fierce that no one dared come near it. But such is never used before much and many, so so is used even when much and many are followed by nouns:

There was so much dust that we couldn 't see what was happening. So many people complained that they took the programme off.

С Note that such + a + adjective + noun is replaceable by so +

adjective + a + noun, so that 'such a good man' is replaceable by 'so good a man'. This is only possible when a

noun is preceded by a/an. It is not a very usual form but may be met in literature. Sometimes for emphasis so is placed at the beginning of the sentence. It is then followed by the inverted form of the verb (see 45): So terrible was the storm that whole roofs were ripped off.

340 Clauses of concession

These are introduced by although, though (see 327, 329), even though, even if, no matter, however (see 85) and sometimes by whatever, as is also possible, but only in the adjective + as + be construction.

Although/Though/Even though/Even if you don't like him you can still be polite.

No matter what you do, don't touch this switch.

However rich people are, they always seem anxious to make more money.

However carefully you drive, you will probably have an accident eventually.

Whatever you do, don't tell him that I told you this.

Patient as he was, he had no intention of waiting for three hours.

(though he was patient) may + infinitive can be used in hypothetical cases:

However frightened you may be yourself, you must remain outwardly calm. may can also imply I accept the fact that': But he's your brother! ~ He may be my brother but I don't trust him!

But may used in this way is part of another main clause, not a clause of concession.

should + infinitive can be used after even if just as it can after if in conditional sentences, to express the idea that the action expressed by the infinitive is not very likely to take place:

Even if he should find out he won't do anything about it.

341 Clauses of comparison

A Comparisons with adjectives and finite verbs (see also 20-2):

It's darker today than it was yesterday.

He doesn't pay as much tax as we do/as us.

He spends more than he earns. Note that + adjective, a colloquial form:

Will it cost £100? - No, it won't cost as much as (all) that. It won't

be (all) that expensive. (It won't be as expensive as that.) that + adjective is sometimes used colloquially to mean very.

В Comparisons with adverbs and finite verbs (see also 31-4): He didn't play as well as we expected/as well as you (did). He sings more loudly than anyone I've ever heard/than anyone else (does).

You work harder than he does/than him/than I did at your age. С Comparisons with adjectives and infinitives or gerunds

Often either can be used, but the infinitive is more usual for a particular action, and gerunds are more usual for general statements (see also E below):

It's sometimes as cheap to buy a new one as (it is) (to) repair the old one.

Buying a new one is sometimes as cheap as repairing the old one. He found that lying on the beach was just as boring as sitting in his office or

He found lying on the beach just as boring as sitting etc. (The infinitive would be less usual here.)

He thinks it (is) safer to drive himself than (to) let me drive. He thinks that driving himself is safer than letting me drive. It will soon be more difficult to get a visa than it is now. Getting a visa will soon be more difficult than it is now.

D In comparisons of the type shown in С above, if we have an infinitive before as/than we will usually have an infinitive (not a gerund) after it. Similarly, if we have a gerund before as/than we will normally have a gerund (not an infinitive) after it. See examples above. But if we have a finite verb + this/that/which before as/than we can have a gerund after it. An infinitive is possible but would be much less usual:

I'll deliver it by hand; this will be cheaper than posting it. He cleaned his shoes, which was better than doing nothing.

E Infinitives are used with would rather/sooner (see 297-8): Most people would rather work than starve. I would resign rather than accept him as a partner.

342 Time clauses

A These are introduced by conjunctions of time such as:

They can also be introduced by the minute, the moment. For examples with when, as, while, see 331-3. For examples with before, see 195 B.

В Remember that we do not use a future form, or a conditional tense, in a time clause.

1 Each of the following future forms becomes a present tense when we put it in a time clause. Future simple:

You 'II be back soon. I'll stay till then. = I'll stay till you get back.

be going to:

The parachutist is going to jump. Soon after he jumps his parachute will open.

The present continuous, used as a future form, and the future continuous:

He's arriving/He 11 be arriving at six but

When he arrives he'll tell us all about the match. Before he arrives I'll give the children their tea.

But the continuous tense can, of course, be used in time clauses when it indicates a continuous action:

Peter and John will be playing/are playing/are going to play tennis tonight. While they are playing (during this time) we 'II go to the beach.

2 The future perfect changes to the present perfect, and the future perfect continuous changes to the present perfect continuous:

I'll have finished in the bathroom in a few minutes.

The moment/As soon as I have finished I'll give you a call.

3 A conditional tense changes to a past tense:

We knew that he would arrive/would be arriving about six.

We knew that till he arrived nothing would be done. But when when introduces a noun clause it can be followed by a future or conditional tense:

He said, 'When will the train get in?' = He asked when the train would get in.

С Clauses with since (see also 187-8)

In clauses since is usually followed by past tenses (but see 188): They 've moved house twice since they got married or Since they got married, they've moved house twice. He said he'd lived in a tent since his house burnt down. It's ages since I sailed/have sailed a boat. I haven't sailed a boat since I left college.

D Clauses with after

In clauses after is often followed by perfect tenses: After/When he had rung off I remembered... After/When you 've finished with it, hang it up.

E hardly/scarcely... when, no sooner... than (see also 45) The performance had hardly begun when the lights went out or Hardly had the performance begun when the lights went out. scarcely could replace hardly here but is less usual.

He had no sooner drunk the coffee than he began to feel drowsy or No sooner had he drunk the coffee than he began to feel drowsy. He no sooner earns any money than he spends it or Immediately he earns any money he spends it. (more colloquial) Note also the sooner... the sooner:

The sooner we start, the sooner we'll be there.

35 Noun clauses

Noun clauses are very often introduced by that and are therefore often called that-clauses. However, not all noun clauses are that-clauses.

343 Noun clauses (that-clauses) as subject of a sentence

A Sentences with noun clause subjects usually begin with it (see 67 D):

It is disappointing that Tom can't come, 'that Tom can't come' is the subject.

В The usual construction is it + be/seem + adjective + noun clause (see 26-7):

It's splendid that you passed your exam.

It's strange that there are no lights on. Some adjectives require or can take that... should (see 236):

It is essential that everybody knows/should know what to do.

С An alternative construction is it + be/seem + a + noun + noun clause.

Nouns that can be used here include mercy, miracle, nuisance, pity, shame, relief, wonder, a good thing is also possible.

It's a great pity (that) they didn 't get married. It's a wonder (that) you weren't killed.

It's a good thing (that) you were insured.

344 that-clauses after certain adjectives/participles

The construction here is subject + be + adjective/past participle + noun clause:

/ am delighted that you passed your exam. This construction can be used with

(a) adjectives expressing emotion: glad, pleased, relieved, sorry (see 26 F)

(b) adjectives/participles expressing anxiety, confidence etc.: afraid, anxious, aware, certain, confident, conscious, convinced (see 27). anxious requires that... should.

I'm afraid that I can't come till next week. Are you certain that this is the right road?

345 that-clauses after certain nouns

A that-clause can be placed after a large number of abstract nouns. The most useful of these are: allegation, announcement, belief, discovery, fact, fear, guarantee, hope, knowledge, promise, proposal, report, rumour, suggestion, suspicion, proposal and suggestion require that... should.

The announcement that a new airport was to be built nearby aroused immediate opposition.

The proposal/suggestion that shops should open on Sundays led to a heated discussion.

A report that the area was dangerous was ignored by the residents.

346 Noun clauses as objects of verbs

A that-clauses are possible after a large number of verbs. Some of the most useful are given below.

and other verbs of communication, e.g. complain, deny, explain etc. (see 316 C). wh: see E below.

Examples

They alleged/made out that they had been unjustly dismissed. He assumes that we agree with him. I can prove that she did it.

В Most of the above verbs can also take another construction (see chapters 23-6). Note however that a verb + that-clause does not necessarily have the same meaning as the same verb + infinitive/gerund/present participle: He saw her answering the letters means 'He watched her doing this' but He saw that she answered the letters could mean either 'He noticed that she did this' or 'He made sure by supervision that she did this'.

С appear, happen, occur, seem, turn out require it as subject: It appears/seems that we have come on the wrong day. It occurred to me that he might be lying. It turned out that nobody remembered the address.

D that + subject + should can be used after agree, arrange,

be anxious, beg, command, decide, demand, determine, be determined, order, resolve and urge instead of an infinitive construction, and after insist and suggest instead of a gerund:

They agreed/decided that a statue should be put up. He urged that the matter should go to arbitration.

He suggested that a reward should be offered. (See 235, 302 E.)

E Verbs in section A marked '(wh)' can also be followed by noun clauses beginning with wh-words: what, when, where, who, why, or with how:

He asked where he was to go.

They'll believe whatever you tell them. I forget who told me this.

Have you heard how he is getting on? I can't think why he left his wife.

I wonder when he will pay me back.

347 so and not representing a that-clause

A After believe, expect, suppose, think and after it appears/seems:

Will Tom be at the party? ~ I expect so/suppose so/think so = I think he will.

For the negative we use:

1 A negative verb with so:

Will the scheme be a success? -~ I don't believe so/expect so/suppose so/think so.

Are they making good progress? ~ It doesn't seem so.

2 Or an affirmative verb with not:

It won't take long, will it? ~ No, I suppose not or

I don't suppose so.

The plane didn 't land in Calcutta, did it? ~ I believe not or

I don't believe so.

В so and not can be used similarly after hope and be afraid (= be sorry to say):

Is Peter coming with us? ~ I hope so.

Will you have to pay duty on this? ~ I'm afraid so. The negative here is made with an affirmative verb + not:

Have you got a work permit? -I'm afraid not.

С so and not can be used after say and tell + object:

How do you know there is going to be a demonstration? ~ Jack said so/Jack told me so.

I told you so! can mean 'I told you that this was the case/that this would happen'. This usually annoys the person addressed. For tell the only negative form is negative verb + so:

Tom didn't tell me so.

For say there are two negative forms, but the meaning is not the same:

Tom didn't say so =

Tom didn't say that there would be a demonstration. Tom said not =

Tom said there wouldn't be a demonstration.

D if + so/not

so/not after if can replace a previously mentioned/understood subject

+ verb:

Will you be staying another night? If so (= If you are), we can give you a better room. If not (= If you aren't),

could you be out of your room by 12.00?

if so/not here usually represents a clause of condition as shown above, but for if so, see also 338 A.

36 Numerals, dates, and weights and measures

348 Cardinal numbers (adjectives and pronouns)

400 four hundred 140 a/one hundred and forty 1,006 a/one thousand and six 5,000 five thousand 260,127 two hundred and sixty thousand, one hundred and twenty-seven

349 Points to notice about cardinal numbers

A When writing in words, or reading, a number composed of three or more figures we place and before the word denoting tens or units:

713 seven hundred and thirteen

5,102 five thousand, one hundred and two but

6,100 six thousand, one hundred (no tens or units) and is used similarly with hundreds of thousands: 320,410 three hundred and twenty thousand, four hundred and ten and hundreds of millions: 303,000,000 three hundred and three million

В a is more usual than one before hundred, thousand, million etc.,, when these numbers stand alone or begin an expression:

100 a hundred 1,000 a thousand

100,000 a hundred thousand

We can also say a hundred and one, a hundred and two etc. up to a hundred and ninety-nine and a thousand and one etc. up to a thousand and ninety-nine. Otherwise we use one, not a (see above). So:

1,040 a/one thousand and forty but

1,140 one thousand, one hundred and forty

С The words hundred, thousand, million and dozen, when used of a definite number, are never made plural: six hundred men ten thousand pounds two dozen eggs If however, these words are used loosely, merely to convey the idea of a large number, they must be made plural:

hundreds of people thousands of birds dozens of times Note also that in this case the preposition of is placed after hundreds thousands etc.

of is not used with definite numbers except before the/them/ these/those or possessives:

six of the blue ones ten of these four of Tom's brothers

D Numbers composed of four or more figures are divided into groups of three as shown above. Decimals are indicated by '•', which is read 'point':

10-92 ten point nine two A zero after a decimal point is usually read 'nought': 8 • 04 eight point nought four But V and 'zero' would also be possible.

350 Ordinal numbers (adjectives and pronouns)

first eleventh twenty-first thirty-first eti

second twelfth twenty-second fortieth third thirteenth twenty-third fiftieth fourth fourteenth twenty-fourth sixtieth fifth fifteenth twenty-fifth seventieth sixth sixteenth twenty-sixth eightieth seventh seventeenth twenty-seventh ninetieth eighth eighteenth twenty-eighth hundredth ninth nineteenth twenty-ninth thousandth tenth twentieth thirtieth millionth

When writing in words or reading fractions other than Й (a half) and 14 (a quarter), we use a combination of cardinal and ordinal numbers:

1/5 a/one fifth Mo alone tenth (a is more usual than one)

% three fifths 7Ao seven tenths A whole number + a fraction can be followed directly by a plural noun: 2/4 miles = two and a quarter miles

1/2 (half) can be followed directly by a noun but other fractions require of before a noun:

half a second but a quarter of a second (See also 2 E.) half + of can also be used, but the of is optional:

Half (of) my earnings go in tax.

351 Points to notice about ordinal numbers

A Notice the irregular spelling of fifth, eighth, ninth and twelfth.

B When ordinal numbers are expressed in figures the last two letters of the written word must be added (except in dates): first = 1st twenty-first = 21st

second = 2nd forty-second = 42nd third = 3rd sixty-third = 63rd fourth = 4th eightieth = 80th

С In compound ordinal numbers the rule about and is the same as for compound cardinal numbers: Wist =

the hundred and first. The article the normally precedes ordinal numbers:

the sixtieth day the fortieth visitor Titles of kings etc. are written in Roman figures:

Charles V James III Elizabeth II But in spoken English we use the ordinal numbers preceded by the:

Charles the Fifth James the Third Elizabeth the Second

352 Dates

A The days of the week The months of the year

Sunday (Sun.) January (Jan.) July

Monday (Man.) February (Feb.) August (Aug.)

Tuesday (Tues.) March (Mar.) September (Sept.)

Wednesday (Wed.) April (Apr.) October (Oct.)

Thursday (Thurs.) May November

(Nov.)

Friday (Fri.) June December (Dec.)

Saturday (Sat.)

Days and months are always written with capital letters.

Dates are expressed by ordinal numbers, so when speaking we say:

March the tenth, July the fourteenth etc. or the tenth of March etc. They can, however, be written in a variety of ways; e.g. March the tenth could be written:

March 10 10 March 10th of March March 10th 10th March March the 10th В The year

When reading or speaking we use the term hundred but not thousand. The year 1987 would be read as nineteen

hundred and eighty-seven or nineteen eighty-seven.

Years before the Christian era are followed by the letters BC (= Before Christ) and years dating from the Christian era are occasionally preceded by the letters AD (= Anno Domini, in the year of the Lord). The former are read in either way: 1500 BC would be read as one thousand five hundred BC or fifteen hundred BC.

353 Weights, length and liquid measure A Weights

The English weights table is as follows: 16 ounces (oz.) = 1 pound (Ib.) 14 pounds = 1 stone (st.) 8 stone = 1 hundredweight (cwt.)

20 hundredweight = 1 ton

1 pound = 0-454 kilogram (kg)

2-2 pounds = 1 kilogram

2,204-6 Ibs = 1 metric tonne

Plurals

ounce, pound and ton can take s in the plural when they are used as nouns, stone and hundredweight do not take s: e.g. we say six pound of sugar or six pounds of sugar, but ten hundredweight of coal has no alternative. When used in compound adjectives these terms never take s:

a ten-ton lorry kilo or kilogram usually take s in the plural when used as nouns:

two kilos of apples or two kilograms of apples B Length The English table of length is as follows:

12 inches (in.) = 1 foot (ft.) 3 feet = 1 yard (yd.) 1,760yards = 1 mile (m.)

1 inch = 2-54 centimetres (cm)

1 yard = 0- 914 metre (m)

1 mile = 1-609 kilometres (km)

Plurals

When there is more than one inch/mile/centimetre we normally use the plural form of these words:

one inch, ten inches one mile, four miles one centimetre, five centimetres

When there is more than one foot we can use either foot or feet, feet is the more usual when measuring heights. We can say:

six foot tall or six feet tall two foot long or two feet long When used in compound adjectives the above forms never take the plural form: a two-mile walk, a six-inch ruler. C Liquid measure

2 pints (pt.) = 1 quart (qt.) 1 pint = 0-568 litre (I)

4 quarts = 1 gallon (gal.) 1 gallon = 4-55 litres

D Traditionally British measurements have been made in ounces, inches, pints etc. but there is now a gradual move towards the metric system.

37 Spelling rules

For noun plurals, see also 12.

For verb forms, see also 165, 172, 175.

354 Introduction Vowels are: a e i o u

Consonants are: bcdfghjklmnpqrstvwxyz A suffix is a group of letters added to the end of a word: beauty, beautiful (ful is the suffix.)

355 Doubling the consonant

A Words of one syllable having one vowel and ending in a single consonant

double the consonant before a suffix beginning with a vowel: hit + ing = hitting but keep, keeping (two vowels)

knit + ed = knitted help, helped (two consonants) run + er = runner love, lover (ending in a vowel) qu here is considered as one consonant: quit, quitting.

When the final consonant is w, x or y it does not double:

row + ed = rowed box + ing = boxing B Two- or three-syllable words ending in a single consonant following a

single vowel double the final consonant when the stress falls on the last syllable. (The stressed syllable is in bold type.)

acquit + ed = acquitted but murmur + ed = murmured begin + er = beginner answer + er = answerer

deter + ed = deterred orbit + ing = orbiting recur + ing = recurring

focus + ed, however, can be spelt focused orfocussed and bias + ed can be spelt biased or biassed.

C The final consonant of handicap, kidnap, worship is also doubled: handicap, handicapped worship, worshipped kidnap, kidnapped D Words ending in 1 following a single vowel or two vowels pronounced

separately usually double the 1:

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